Use of imports in the Dutch economy
| Intermediate imports | Processed for domestic expenditures | Processed for exports | Directly for domestic expenditures | Directly for re-export | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Imports of goods | 591.8 billion euros | 227.9 billion euros | 73.2 billion euros | 154.7 billion euros | 87.2 billion euros | 276.7 billion euros |
| Imports of services | 234.1 billion euros | 166.7 billion euros | 62.0 billion euros | 104.7 billion euros | 34.3 billion euros | 33.2 billion euros |
The Netherlands is highly integrated into global value chains and therefore has close connections with other countries. Our country is a major hub for global trade, especially within the European single market. This chapter takes a closer look at the origins and composition of Dutch imports in 2023. How are these imports of goods and services used within the Dutch economy? Do Dutch enterprises use them in domestic production or do they leave the country again as re-exports without any further processing? Dutch enterprises typically import goods and services which can be produced more efficiently abroad or which they cannot produce themselves. A significant proportion of these goods and services are crucial to the Netherlands’ competitiveness in the world market.
7.1Key Findings
Distribution of goods and services imports
- The infographic at the beginning of this chapter shows what happens to imports that enter the Netherlands. In 2023, the Netherlands imported €826 billion worth of goods and services from abroad. Of these imports, €591.8 billion euros consisted of goods and €234.1 billion euros of services.
- A considerable share of the total import value of goods and services (37%) found its way directly back abroad in the form of re-exports in 2023. This overwhelmingly involved goods. Imported goods and services for the purpose of direct domestic expenditures accounted for 11% and 4% of the total import value, respectively. Intermediate goods and services imports are used by firms in the Netherlands to produce goods and provide services, and had shares of 28% and 21% respectively.
- Compared to 2022, the import value of goods and services fell by €45 billion (–5%) in 2023. In particular, goods imports saw a decline in value of €58.4 billion (–9%). Prices of imported goods fell by 6% in 2023 compared to the previous year, while volume declined by 3%.
Composition and origin of goods imports
- Approximately 47% of goods imports (€276.7 billion) were intended for re-export
in 2023. Imported goods for the purpose of direct domestic expenditures such as household consumption and business investments, had a value of €87.2 billion. Intermediate goods imports amounted to €227.9 billion in 2023. Of these intermediate goods imports, 32% were further processed by firms in the Netherlands into goods or services for sale on the domestic market. This means that the remaining 68% were exported after processing in the Netherlands. - In 2023, petroleum and petroleum products were the most important category of goods imports intended for re-export, followed by various manufactured goods. In intermediate goods imports, petroleum and natural gas were the categories of groups with the highest import value. Goods imports for direct domestic expenditures were dominated by vehicles and natural gas.
- Imported goods intended for re-export in 2023 mainly originated from Germany and China. For the import of intermediate goods, Germany, the US and Belgium are the Netherlands’ main import partners. For imported goods for the purpose of direct domestic expenditures, the main import partners are Germany and Belgium.
- After the sharp price increases of 2022, most sectors saw falling prices in 2023. Prices in the petroleum industry and the chemical industry dropped, for instance. In general, the price drops seen in 2023 were relatively small compared to the price increases recorded in the previous year.
Composition and origin of services imports
- Services imports for direct domestic expenditures had a value of €34.3 billion in 2023. Intermediate services imports amounted to €166.7 billion in 2023. Of this, 38% were further processed by firms in our country to produce goods or services to be sold on the domestic market. This means that the remaining 62% of services imports were exported after processing in the Netherlands.
- Business services were the largest category in intermediate service imports, of which 59% were further processed into exported goods or services. Services imports for direct domestic expenditures consisted of €20.8 billion in travel and €5.9 billion in business services.
- For intermediate services imports, the US and the UK remained the main import partners. Services imports for direct domestic expenditures came mainly from Germany and the US.
The importance of imports for Dutch exports
- The import content of Dutch exports was 48.9% in 2023, compared to 52.1% in 2022. This decrease in import content is partly explained by lower import prices for raw materials and fuels.
- Prices of imported goods that were processed into domestic exports fell by 9.7% in 2023, while export prices fell by 0.9%. As a result, the Netherlands retained €0.23 more per €1 of exports in 2023 compared to 2022. Prices of services imports processed into service exports rose in line with the export prices of services.
- Domestic export volumes fell by 2.2% in 2023, with the required import volume of goods also falling by 1.7%. The import of goods required to produce domestic exports in the period between 2021 and 2023 saw the largest price increase, but also the largest decline in volume.
International links through Dutch imports and exports
- The Netherlands is an important hub for intraregional trade within the European internal market. A large share of the imports that were processed into exports – €44.4 billion, accounting for 12.4% of total imports for intermediate consumption) – came from another EU member state and were then also forwarded to a different (or the same) member state.
- Outside the EU, the United States (€27.1 billion) and the United Kingdom (€14.8 billion) were again the most important suppliers of imported goods that were processed by firms in the Netherlands.
Analysing export-related imports in more detail
- In 2023, a total of €51.0 billion in imported raw materials and mineral fuels and €17.5 billion in imported machinery and transport equipment were needed to produce exports. The EU supplied 45% of the goods imported that were required for Dutch exports. For the import of raw materials and mineral fuels processed into exports, the EU’s share was significantly lower at 22%. For the other categories, the EU’s share was over 50%.
- In 2023, a total of €27.7 billion in imported business services and €13.8 billion in imported transport services were needed to produce exports. Approximately 53% of the imported services in 2023 came from the EU. As with goods, the EU’s share was above 50% in most service categories. Only in the case of royalties was the EU’s share in the imports used to produce exports significantly lower, at 38%.
Outline
Section 7.2 gives a description of the use of goods and services imports in the Netherlands in 2023. Which imports are intended for direct consumption in the Netherlands and which imports end up leaving the country again as re-exports? Which goods and services are used as intermediate inputs in Dutch production processes? Section 7.3 provides more details on the composition and origins of goods imports, while section 7.4 looks at services imports. The significance of imports to Dutch exports is discussed in section 7.5. Was the increase in monetary value of these processed imports essentially a price effect, or a volume effect? Section 7.6 examines which imports from which countries are incorporated into exports for certain major trading partners. For example, did most imports in 2023 come from the EU or did they come from non-EU countries? Imports required for exports are further analysed in section 7.7, adding the dimension of products to the analysis of imported goods and services incorporated into Dutch exports.
7.2The various import flows
This section describes how the goods and services imported in the Netherlands in 2023 were used. What happens to these imports? What proportion of those imports is used in production processes in the Netherlands? And what proportion is consumed by Dutch households? Are they intended for consumption or investment, for instance, such as imports of solar panels that are subsequently installed on owner-occupied dwellings? It also describes which proportion of imports leaves the Netherlands as re-exports with minimal processing. Given the large price fluctuations that we have seen in recent years, a breakdown between volume changes and price changes is provided where possible.
It is important to note that this chapter focuses only on the domestic chain. This means that the analysis only considers direct imports and exports between the Netherlands and other countries. It does not take into account indirect import flows or countries of origin. Nor is it possible, when breaking down imports by country and goods, to measure imports intended for foreign production. This means that the totals shown in the infographic, as well as those in Table 7.2.1 and Figure 7.2.2, are higher, given that these figures also include foreign production.
Goods imports fell in 2023
In 2023, the Netherlands imported €826 billion worth of goods and services from abroad.
Of the total import value of €826 billion, goods represented nearly €592 billion and services over €234 billion (see Table 7.2.1). Compared to 2022, the import value in 2023 was down by €45 billion (–5%). Goods imports saw a decline in value of €58.4 billion (–9%). Prices of imported goods fell by 6% in 2023 compared to 2022, while the volume declined by 2.7%. By way of comparison, in 2022, the volume of goods imported increased by 1.6%, while the import value of services was up by €13.1 billion (up by 6%).
| Intermediate imports incorporated into domestic expenditures | Intermediate imports incorporated into exports | Direct imports for domestic expenditures | Imports for re-exports | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| bn euros | |||||
| Imports of goods | 73.2 | 154.7 | 87.2 | 276.7 | 591.8 |
| Imports of services | 62.0 | 104.7 | 34.3 | 33.2 | 234.1 |
| Total | 135.1 | 259.4 | 121.5 | 309.9 | 826.0 |
Re-exports are still the largest trade flow
Table 7.2.1 and the infographic at the beginning of this chapter show that a large proportion of goods imports leave the country again as virtually unprocessed re-exports. One-third of goods imports were for the purpose of re-exports. Figure 7.2.2 shows that the proportion of goods imports for the purpose of re-exports remained consistent at around 45% in the 2021–2023 period. An example of the process of re-export would be a machine imported from Spain which becomes the property of a Dutch enterprise and which is then exported again to a third country, for example Belgium, without hardly any further processing. Previous research has shown that many imports arriving in the Netherlands from Asia are used for re-exports to other European countries (Franssen et al., 2020).
By contrast, re-exports only make up a small proportion of services imports. In 2023, services imported for the purpose of re-export stood at €33.2 billion, which is equivalent to 4% of total imports and 14% of services imports. This mainly occurs with royalties and licences for special purpose entities (SPEs) registered in the Netherlands that manage intellectual property rights and transfer the payments they collect almost directly to foreign parent companies (DNB, 2018).
| Stroom | Intermediate imports processed for domestic expenditures | Intermediate imports processed for export | Direct import for domestic expenditures | Imports for re-export | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Goods | 2023*, Goods | 73.2 | 154.7 | 87.2 | 276.7 |
| Goods | 2022, Goods | 79.1 | 173.2 | 97.1 | 300.8 |
| Goods | 2021, Goods | 62.5 | 129.2 | 78.6 | 224.9 |
| Services | 2023*, Services | 69.2 | 97.5 | 34.3 | 33.2 |
| Services | 2022, Services | 60.1 | 99.6 | 31.4 | 29.9 |
| Services | 2021, Services | 56.9 | 88.7 | 18.7 | 24.3 |
Imports of goods and services for direct consumption dropped slightly
Like re-exports, goods and services imports utilised for direct domestic expenditures are not subject to any significant processing by Dutch enterprises. In 2023, the Netherlands imported goods and services to the value of €122 billion that were consumed or invested directly by households, the government or enterprises in the Netherlands. A typical example would be a television manufactured in South Korea and purchased by a retailer in the Netherlands who then sells it to a Dutch consumer. Imports of goods intended for direct domestic expenditures amounted to €87 billion in 2023, which represents a decline of about €10 billion (–10%) compared to 2022, but which is 11% more than in 2021.
Services imports increasingly important
Even though the destinations of the different import flows have hardly changed over the years, certain flows, representing only a small share of total imports, do show a clear growth. This is particularly true of services imports for direct domestic expenditures, which had a value of €34 billion in 2023. Relative to 2022, that was a rise of approximately €3 billion, or 10%. Spending by Dutch tourists abroad is also counted as domestic expenditures, and actually accounted for the largest share within this category. This is clear to see in the year 2021, which was marked by the coronavirus pandemic. In that year, the value of this category of services imports amounted to only €19 billion. In 2022, when travel became easier again, leading to an increase of nearly 70% compared to 2021.
Imports of intermediate services continue to rise
Approximately 48% of total goods and services imports were intended for further processing by enterprises in the Netherlands in 2023. This type of imports is known as intermediate imports, and they amounted to €395 billion, of which goods accounted for €228 billion and services for €167 billion. Take, for example, a technology company in the Netherlands that contracts a software developer based in another country. The software is then used to manufacture products for the domestic market. Of imports of processed intermediate goods in 2023, approximately one-third (€72 billion) were sold on the domestic market and two-thirds (€155 billion) were exported. An example of this would be imports of electronic components from China, which are then incorporated into agricultural machinery in the Netherlands and processed for exports.
The proportions for intermediate services imports were similar: €62 billion was used for domestic expenditures and €105 billion for foreign expenditures. An example in this case would be a wholesale trader in the Netherlands which contracts foreign transport companies to provide logistics services. Compared to 2022, goods imports destined for further processing fell by €24 billion (–10%), while services imports destined for processing in the Netherlands increased by €7 billion (+up by 4%). Sections 7.5 to 7.7 look at these import flows in more detail.
7.3Composition and origin of goods imports
The infographic at the beginning of this chapter shows that the imports of goods destined for re-exports represented, as in previous years, the largest import flow into the Netherlands in 2023. These imports stood at €277 billion, representing 35% of the total value of imports. When examining which types of goods are imported the most, Figure 7.3.1 shows that, with an import value of €72 billion, crude oil and petroleum products were again the most important category of goods imports in 2023. Compared to 2022, the import value of this goods category fell by €11 billion, or 13%. Compared to the years prior to 2022, imports of crude oil and petroleum products remain at a high level. In 2021, the import value stood at approximately €52 billion. This large increase relative to 2021 is mainly explained by the effects of the war in Ukraine and the resulting price increases. Also see Table 6.2.8 in Chapter 6 of this edition, which presents the changes in prices in domestic exports by sector and industry. With import values of €57 billion and €39 billion respectively, various manufactured articles and natural gas also remained at a high level. Various manufactured articles include clothing and furniture. Imports of electrical appliances stood at €35 billion, approximately 62% of which were destined for re-exports. The imports in this product category declined slightly by 3% in comparison with 2022.
| Product | Intermediate imports processed for domestic expenditures | Intermediate imports processed for export | Direct import for domestic expenditures | Imports for re-export |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crude oil and petroleum products | 6.1 | 39.4 | 2.3 | 24.5 |
| Various manufactured goods | 4.9 | 4.5 | 8.8 | 38.7 |
| Natural gas | 5.4 | 7.9 | 6.2 | 19.1 |
| Electrical devices and equipment | 5 | 4.5 | 4 | 21.7 |
| Vehicles for road transport | 2 | 3.8 | 14.4 | 4.8 |
| Telecommunication and audio equipment |
1.2 | 1.4 | 3.1 | 16.5 |
| Medicaments and pharmaceutical products |
2.2 | 0.7 | 3.8 | 14.2 |
| Office and automatic data-processing equipment |
1.8 | 2.4 | 4.9 | 11.1 |
| Instruments and equipment for professionals, scientists |
0.5 | 0.9 | 1.6 | 14.6 |
| Various machinery | 1.6 | 2.3 | 4.2 | 9.3 |
Crude oil and natural gas important for both exports and domestic production
Imports of intermediate goods peaked at €191 billion in 2023. Figure 7.3.1 shows that crude oil and petroleum products and natural gas were the most important categories within this category of imports, totalling €46 billion and €13 billion, respectively.
Approximately 85% of the imported crude oil processed in the Netherlands was processed for exports and the other 15% for domestic expenditures. Examples of intermediate imports of crude oil would be crude oil that is refined into end products, or crude oil that serves as a raw material in the chemical industry, for the manufacturing of plastics for example. Petroleum products such as marine diesel and paraffin can also be included in this category (CBS, 2025b). Another product category that is relevant to export-oriented production are imports of electrical appliances. In 2023, approximately €10 billion worth of intermediate goods in that product category were imported, about 38% of which were used in export-oriented production processes.
Vehicles mainly imported for direct domestic consumption
In 2023, goods imports used for direct domestic consumption amounted to €87 billion, or 11% of total goods imports. Among these imports, the largest product category was road transport vehicles, with an import value of €14 billion. More than half of imports of road transport vehicles, such as passenger cars and motorcycles, are directly imported for Dutch consumers and enterprises (CBS, 2024d). This category was followed by miscellaneous manufactured articles at €8.8 billion, natural gas at €6.2 billion and office machines at €4.9 billion.
Germany continues to be the most important country of origin for goods imports
Table 7.3.2 shows that Germany maintained its position as the Netherlands’ main trading partner in 2023. Goods imports from Germany had an aggregate value of €98 billion. Belgium and the US ranked as the Netherlands’ second and third largest import partners. The 27 EU member states accounted for 49% of total goods imports into the Netherlands.
| Intermediate imports incorporated into domestic expenditures | Intermediate imports incorporated into exports |
Direct imports for domestic expenditures | Imports for re-exports |
Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Countries and groups of countries | billion euros | ||||
| Belgium | 8.2 | 13.1 | 10.2 | 22.2 | 53.8 |
| Germany | 15.2 | 22.7 | 19.3 | 40.5 | 97.8 |
| EU, other | 15.1 | 21.7 | 20.2 | 61.2 | 118.2 |
| Ukraine | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.5 | 1.2 |
| Russia | 0.5 | 1.1 | 0.5 | 2.9 | 5.1 |
| UK | 2.3 | 6.6 | 3.0 | 15.1 | 27.0 |
| Europe, other | 3.1 | 6.5 | 2.8 | 17.4 | 29.9 |
| Africa | 1.9 | 7.3 | 1.7 | 6.7 | 17.7 |
| US | 6.3 | 15.3 | 6.8 | 24.3 | 52.6 |
| Americas, other | 1.9 | 6.5 | 1.7 | 12.8 | 23.0 |
| China | 3.5 | 3.9 | 6.5 | 28.7 | 42.6 |
| Asia, other | 5.3 | 14.8 | 8.7 | 39.4 | 68.1 |
| Elsewhere | 3.4 | 4.3 | 6.5 | 25.5 | 39.8 |
EU member states provide half of intermediate goods imports
Imports from EU member states that are further processed by enterprises in the Netherlands had a total value of €96 billion in 2023, representing 50% of total intermediate goods imports. Figure 7.3.3 shows that the share of the EU, which comprises Germany, Belgium and other EU countries, was above 50% in 2021, but declined to 48% in 2022. The fact that the EU’s share returned to 50% in 2023 is primarily attributable to a larger share of goods from Germany, primarily industrial products. Imports from Germany accounted for around 20% of total goods imports in 2021, fell to 18% in 2022 and climbed again to 20% in 2023. It is also worth noting that the US is becoming increasingly important as supplier of intermediate goods. Whereas this share was only 6% in 2021, it had almost doubled to 11% by 2023 (Konietzny et al., 2025). Mineral fuels in particular contributed to this growth.
Intermediate goods imports can be further broken down by sectors and industries. Table 7.3.4 shows that the commercial services sector imported intermediate goods worth €53.5 billion in 2023. An example here could be IT service providers which purchase computers, for example. Other large importing sectors and industries include the food, beverages and tobacco industry, the oil-refining industry, and the chemicals industry. Columns 3 and 4 of Table 7.3.4 show the year-on-year changes in value by sector and industry.
| Land | Belgium | Germany | Other EU | Ukraine | Russia | UK | Europe, other | Africa | US | Americas, other | China | Asia, other | Rest of the world |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2023* | 11.1 | 19.8 | 19.2 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 4.7 | 5.0 | 4.8 | 11.3 | 4.4 | 3.9 | 10.5 | 4.0 |
| 2022 | 11.1 | 17.5 | 19.1 | 0.4 | 3.8 | 5.2 | 4.6 | 5.6 | 8.9 | 4.3 | 4.9 | 10.6 | 3.9 |
| 2021 | 11.7 | 19.8 | 19.4 | 0.8 | 6.4 | 5.6 | 5.2 | 3.4 | 6.4 | 3.5 | 5.5 | 9.3 | 3.1 |
The value of intermediate goods imports for the oil-refining industry grew by nearly 60% between 2021 and 2022, but subsequently dropped again by more than 12% between 2022 and 2023. However, this does not necessarily mean that the import volume also changed significantly, which is why the changes in value are further broken down into volume changes (shown in columns 5 and 6) and price changes (shown in columns 7 and 8).
Modest falls in price in 2022 following sharp increases in 2021
The sharp increase in the value of intermediate imports for the oil-refining industry in 2022 was largely due to price changes. For the machinery industry, on the other hand, the increase in value of 12% in 2023 was largely attributable to a higher volume of imports, while prices remained fairly stable. In 2023, the chemicals industry saw a large decline in terms of both volume (15%) and price (also 15%), which resulted in an aggregate decline in value of almost 30%. Following the sharp price increases in 2022, most sectors and industries experienced price declines in 2023, such as the 16% fall seen in the oil-refinery industry. However, these price declines were relatively modest compared with the price increases recorded the previous year (CBS, 2024b).
| Imports 2023* | Change in value | Change in volume | Change in price | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2022 | 2023* | 2022 | 2023* | 2022 | 2023* | ||
| Sector and industry | billion euros | % | |||||
| Agriculture | 3.8 | 33.6 | –5.2 | –12.5 | 2.9 | 52.7 | –7.9 |
| Forestry and fishing | 0.1 | –6.4 | –15.7 | –32.1 | –11.8 | 37.8 | –4.4 |
| Mining and quarrying | 0.3 | 47.8 | –16.6 | 3.1 | –12.2 | 43.4 | –5.1 |
| Food, beverages and tobacco industry | 38.5 | 32.3 | –5.0 | 1.5 | –4.1 | 30.4 | –0.9 |
| Textile, clothing, leather and shoe industry | 1.2 | –3.9 | –7.1 | –19.4 | –6.6 | 19.2 | –0.5 |
| Timber, paper and printing industry | 5.0 | 10.4 | –15.1 | –12.9 | –5.2 | 26.8 | –10.4 |
| Oil-refining industry | 36.8 | 58.8 | –12.4 | –2.3 | 4.3 | 62.5 | –16.0 |
| Chemical industry | 22.4 | 36.8 | –28.0 | –2.4 | –15.2 | 40.1 | –15.1 |
| Pharmaceutical industry | 2.6 | –5.3 | –13.6 | –17.2 | –8.0 | 14.3 | –6.1 |
| Rubber and plastics industry | 2.8 | 9.5 | –18.5 | –9.1 | –15.0 | 20.4 | –4.1 |
| Building materials industry | 1.6 | 25.1 | –7.7 | 2.7 | –10.5 | 21.8 | 3.2 |
| Basic metal industry | 4.8 | 26.8 | –17.2 | –0.3 | –5.0 | 27.1 | –12.8 |
| Metal products industry | 5.4 | 23.4 | –14.6 | –1.1 | –0.4 | 24.7 | –14.2 |
| Electrotechnical industry | 6.2 | –4.2 | –8.7 | –12.5 | –2.9 | 9.4 | –5.9 |
| Electrical equipment industry | 4.2 | 7.4 | –5.2 | –5.3 | –5.0 | 13.4 | –0.2 |
| Machinery | 14.1 | 25.1 | 11.9 | 12.4 | 11.5 | 11.3 | 0.3 |
| Motor vehicle and trailer industry | 8.2 | 15.5 | 6.2 | 11.4 | 4.6 | 3.7 | 1.5 |
| Other transport equipment | 2.5 | 12 | –11.9 | 0.9 | –12.0 | 10.9 | 0.2 |
| Furniture industry | 1.1 | 15.4 | –17.0 | –2.9 | –13.1 | 18.9 | –4.5 |
| Other manufacturing and repairs | 2.9 | 24.0 | 3.4 | 9.6 | 6.1 | 13.1 | –2.5 |
| Commercial services | 53.5 | 41.3 | –7.8 | 1.2 | –0.1 | 39.6 | –7.7 |
| Public administration, education and care | 7.7 | 2.4 | –2.8 | –16.9 | 0.3 | 23.2 | –3.1 |
| Other | 2.2 | 27.8 | –1.0 | 1.3 | 3.5 | 26.1 | –4.4 |
7.4Composition and origin of services imports
Following on from the previous section, this section details the uses, composition and origins of Dutch services imports. In 2023, business services were again the largest category of services imports, as Figure 7.4.1 shows. Imports of business services stood at €80 billion, an increase of €7 billion, or approximately 10% compared to 2022. Around 85% of business services were imported by enterprises to support their production processes or services, such as ICT services, research and development (R&D) and payments for the use of intellectual property (Bohn et al., 2022). 35% was utilised for domestic expenditures and 50% for the exports of goods and services. Transport services were the second largest import category, with a value of €34 billion, similar to the import value in 2022. At 95%, transport services were utilised almost entirely for intermediate consumption. Royalties, such as franchises and licence fees, ranked third with an import value of €32 billion. In fourth position were travel services, with an import value of €24 billion, followed by ICT services ranking fifth with an import value of €22 billion.
| Product | Intermediate imports processed for domestic expenditures | Intermediate imports processed for export | Direct import for domestic expenditures | Imports for re-export |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Other business services | 28.1 | 39.8 | 6.2 | 5.9 |
| Transport services | 9.9 | 22.8 | 1.4 | 0.3 |
| Use of intellectual property |
5.5 | 12.2 | 0.2 | 13.7 |
| Travel services | 1.5 | 1.5 | 20.8 | 0 |
| Telecommunications, computer services |
8.9 | 9.2 | 3.9 | 0.4 |
| Financial services | 7.1 | 4.7 | 0.8 | 0.3 |
| Industrial services | 2.7 | 4.2 | 0.2 | 0 |
| Construction services | 2.2 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0 |
| Maintenance and repairs |
1.3 | 1.5 | 0 | 0 |
| Cultural and recreation services |
1 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0 |
Table 7.4.2 shows from which countries and regions services are imported and how these are used in the Dutch economy. In 2023, the US was once again the largest import partner for services, with an import value of €41 billion, followed by the UK with €27 billion and Germany with €26 billion. Compared with 2022, imports from the US decreased slightly by 4%. Germany and the other EU countries showed increases of 10% and 8% respectively. The EU single market as a whole accounted for €116 billion worth of imports.
| Intermediate imports incorporated into domestic expenditures | Intermediate imports incorporated into exports | Direct imports for domestic expenditures | Imports for re-exports | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Countries and groups of countries | billion euros | ||||
| Belgium | 5.1 | 7.4 | 2.7 | 0.1 | 15.2 |
| Germany | 7.4 | 12.5 | 5.4 | 1.1 | 26.4 |
| EU, other | 21.0 | 36.9 | 12.6 | 3.6 | 74.0 |
| Ukraine | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 |
| Russia | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0.3 |
| UK | 8.2 | 13.2 | 2.9 | 2.6 | 27.0 |
| Europe, other | 2.0 | 3.4 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 8.0 |
| Africa | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 2.1 |
| US | 9.3 | 17.7 | 3.0 | 10.7 | 40.7 |
| Americas, other | 2.2 | 3.5 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 7.3 |
| China | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 2.2 |
| Asia, other | 5.0 | 7.1 | 3.4 | 0.6 | 16.1 |
Figure 7.4.3 shows the shares of intermediate services imports per country or group of countries in the 2021–2023 period. In 2023, EU countries accounted for 54% of these imports, an increase of 4 percentage points compared with 2021, when this share, was 50%. Ireland, France and Poland were the main countries of origin within the ‘other EU countries’ group. The growth of the EU’s share was mainly at the expense of the share of the US and the UK, whose respective shares fell between 2021 and 2023 from 19% and 14% in 2021 to 16% and 13% in 2023. The shares hardly changed for China and other Asian countries.
Imports of intellectual property mainly from non-EU countries
When it comes to imports of services from EU countries, the most important categories in 2023 were business services and transport services, with an import value of €34.6 billion and €21.9 billion respectively. Business services were also the largest category when it comes to imports of services from outside the EU, with an import value of €33.3 billion. With a value of €10.8 billion and €8.9 billion respectively, the UK and the US were the main suppliers of business services. After business services and transport services, fees for the use of intellectual property were the third main imports category, with an aggregate value of €17.8 billion. Within this category of services, non-EU countries supplied the Netherlands with imports to the value of €10.9 billion, more than EU countries did at €6.9 billion. These services were mainly imported from the US (€8.8 billion). The US and the UK also played an important role in imports of ICT services, to the value of €2.4 billion and €2.6 billion respectively.
| Land | Belgium | Germany | Other EU | Ukraine | Russia | UK | Europe, other | Africa | US | Americas, other | China | Asia, other | Rest of world |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2023* | 7.5 | 11.9 | 34.7 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 12.8 | 3.2 | 0.9 | 16.2 | 3.4 | 0.9 | 7.3 | 0.9 |
| 2022 | 7.7 | 11.5 | 33.7 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 13.3 | 2.9 | 0.8 | 16.7 | 3.7 | 1.3 | 7.2 | 0.8 |
| 2021 | 7.0 | 11.0 | 32.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 13.9 | 3.3 | 0.7 | 18.7 | 4.1 | 1.4 | 6.4 | 0.6 |
7.5The import content of Dutch exports
As described in the previous sections, many imports of goods and services are incorporated into Dutch exports. Dutch production processes are characterised by the high import content of exports, an important feature in a country’s integration in global value chains.
Decrease in import content of exports in 2023 due to lower prices for raw materials and fuels
As explained in Chapter 6, the value added (or earnings per euro) of domestic exports was 51.1 eurocents in 2023 (see Figure 6.2.3). The other 48.9 eurocents consisted of imported goods and services used to produce exports. In other words, the import content of domestic exports was 48.9% on average. In 2022, earnings per euro from exports were an average of 47.9 eurocents. In 2021, they were 50.8 eurocents. There is a negative relationship between export earnings and the imports incorporated into exports: when earnings per euro of exports increase, the import content of exports drops. And vice versa: when earnings per euro of exports decline, the import content of exports increases.
Table 7.5.1 shows the value of imports of goods and services incorporated into domestic goods exports in the period from 2021 to 2023. In 2023, domestic goods exports decreased in comparison with 2022. Consequently, the volume of goods imports needed to sustain this export flow also declined. Table 7.5.1 shows that, taken as a whole, approximately four-fifths of the imports needed to produce domestic exports consists of goods. The reverse is true for services exports. Between 70% and 75% of the imports needed for services exports consist of services imports.noot1
| Gross exports | Earnings | Imports required | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| total | goods imports | services imports | |||||
| million euros | % | million euros | % | ||||
| Exports of domestic goods | |||||||
| 2021 | 279,243 | 142,009 | 137,234 | 109,438 | 80 | 27,796 | 20 |
| 2022 | 334,568 | 160,092 | 174,476 | 144,098 | 83 | 30,378 | 17 |
| 2023* | 324,535 | 165,878 | 158,658 | 127,878 | 81 | 30,780 | 19 |
| Services exports1) | |||||||
| 2021 | 193,042 | 124,118 | 68,924 | 17,308 | 25 | 51,616 | 75 |
| 2022 | 239,625 | 154,528 | 85,097 | 25,919 | 30 | 59,178 | 70 |
| 2023* | 256,119 | 168,023 | 88,096 | 24,418 | 28 | 63,678 | 72 |
1)Excluding re-exports of services (mainly royalties and licences) and corrections for re-classification.
Price decreases of domestic goods exports and required goods imports
The decline in the import content of domestic exports in 2023 can mainly be explained by price decreases (see Table 7.5.2). In 2022, prices of domestic exports had increased by 22.1% due to the recovery of demand after the coronavirus crisis and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, while in 2023 export prices for domestic goods decreased by 0.9%. The prices of the imported goods required to produce those exports fell by 9.7%, while the prices of the imported services required actually increased by 3.5%. The decline in import prices for incorporated goods imports was mainly due to falling prices of raw materials and mineral fuels. Taking account of the prices of both imported goods and services incorporated into domestic exports, the price decrease stood at 7.4%. Compared with the price increase of value added, this increased by 6.4%. The value-added price increases reflected the sharply increased labour costs, among other factors. Despite the price decrease in 2023, the export prices of domestic goods continue to be 21% above the 2021 price level. However, we do see that the total price increase in the 2021–2023 period of both the required imports and the value added does not differ significantly from the increase in export prices.
Unlike exports of domestic goods, prices of services exports rose by 6% in 2023 compared to 2022. The prices of the goods imports required to produce services exports were down. The prices of services imports incorporated into exports and value added, on the other hand, were up. The prices of services exports also exceeded the price level of 2021.
| Gross exports | Earnings | Imports required | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| total | goods imports | services imports | |||
| % | |||||
| Exports of domestic goods | |||||
| 2022 | 22.1 | 13.8 | 30.9 | 37.3 | 7.3 |
| 2023* | –0.9 | 6.4 | –7.4 | –9.7 | 3.5 |
| 2021–2023* | 21.0 | 21.1 | 21.2 | 24.0 | 11.1 |
| Services exports1) | |||||
| 2022 | 7.6 | 5.4 | 11.7 | 29.1 | 5.5 |
| 2023* | 6.0 | 8.2 | 1.9 | –5.5 | 5.1 |
| 2021–2023* | 14.1 | 14.0 | 13.8 | 22.0 | 10.9 |
1)Excluding re-exports of services (mainly royalties and licences) and corrections for re-classification.
Largest price increase and largest drop in volume in goods imports required for goods exports
While domestic goods export prices increased significantly in the 2021–2023 period, export volumes decreased. In 2023, prices for domestic goods exports were 4.1% lower than in 2021, adjusted for inflation (see Table 7.5.3). Adjusted for inflation, earnings from this export flow were also lower, by 3.6%. In 2023, this contraction was 2.6%, thereby making a negative contribution to Dutch GDP growth (CBS, 2024a). The volume of goods imports required was 5.7% lower in the 2021–2023 period, while the volume of services imports required was 0.2% lower. The goods imports required for domestic exports in the 2021–2023 period showed not only the strongest price increase, but also the strongest drop in volume.
Volumes of export earnings increased more sharply than volumes of imports incorporated into exports
In the 2021–2023 period, services exports underwent a sharp increase in volume, driven particularly by the recovery from the coronavirus crisis. It is striking that earnings adjusted for inflation rose more sharply than export volumes. In other words, the real-terms growth in value added attributable to exports rose faster than the real-terms volume of exports. Logically, the import volumes required to produce services exports rose less sharply, although in relative terms more goods imports were required than services imports.
| Gross exports | Earnings | Imports required | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| total | goods imports | services imports | |||
| % | |||||
| Exports of domestic goods | |||||
| 2022 | –1.9 | –1.0 | –2.9 | –4.1 | 1.9 |
| 2023* | –2.2 | –2.6 | –1.8 | –1.7 | –2.1 |
| 2021–2023* | –4.1 | –3.6 | –4.6 | –5.7 | –0.2 |
| Services exports1) | |||||
| 2022 | 15.4 | 18.1 | 10.5 | 16.0 | 8.6 |
| 2023* | 0.9 | 0.4 | 1.6 | –0.3 | 2.4 |
| 2021–2023* | 16.4 | 18.6 | 12.3 | 15.7 | 11.2 |
1)Excluding re-exports of services (mainly royalties and licences) and corrections for re-classification.
7.6International connections through Dutch imports and exports
Where do the inputs for Dutch exports actually come from? This section examines the origins of goods and services imports, as well as the ultimate export destinations of these imported goods and services after they have been processed in the Netherlands. It focuses both on the relative importance of the EU, both as a supplier of inputs and a market for Dutch exports, and on specific key trading partners.
Table 7.6.1 illustrates the role of the Netherlands in global economic interconnectedness in 2023. To what extent are imports of goods and services from one country or region incorporated into exports to another country or region? For example, enterprises in the Netherlands imported a total of €27.1 billion worth of goods and services from the US, of which approximately 51%, or €13.9 billion, were found to have been incorporated into exports to the EU. At the same time, Dutch enterprises used €23.5 billion worth of imports to be able to export goods and services to the American continent. Of these imports, 46% came from the EU (for example the sum of imports from Belgium, Germany and other EU-27 countries), 21% from the American continent itself, and 15% from Asia. The aggregate value of the imports incorporated into Dutch exports was €258.9 billion. This corresponds to the total value of imports incorporated into exports of goods and services, as shown in Table 7.5.1. For €81.1 billion worth of imports, we do not know their origin, nor where the exports for which they served as input went to.noot2 The largest part of the ‘elsewhere or unknown’ group of countries concerns imports and/or exports that cannot be linked to a country, meaning that the country is unknown. The remainder of this ‘elsewhere or unknown group’ mainly comprises Australia and the rest of Oceania (insofar as the figures are known). Due to the small import values concerned, these are not shown separately in the table.
| To EU27 countries | To the Americas | To Asia | To other countries or unknown2) | To all countries | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Europe | |||||
| Imports from Belgium | 8.6 | 1.8 | 2.2 | 3 | 15.6 |
| Imports from Germany | 13.8 | 3.4 | 5.8 | 4.8 | 27.8 |
| Imports from other EU27 countries | 22.1 | 5.5 | 6.3 | 8.5 | 42.4 |
| Imports from Ukraine | 0.3 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.5 |
| Imports from Russia | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 1.2 |
| Imports from the UK | 7.7 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 14.8 |
| Imports from other EU countries | 4.5 | 1.2 | 1.1 | 1.7 | 8.4 |
| Africa | |||||
| Imports from Africa | 4.1 | 1 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 7.5 |
| Americas | |||||
| Imports from the US | 13.9 | 3.7 | 3.9 | 5.6 | 27.1 |
| Imports from other countries in the Americas | 4.7 | 1.1 | 1 | 1.7 | 8.5 |
| Asia | |||||
| Imports from China | 1.8 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 3.7 |
| Imports from other Asian countries | 9.8 | 3 | 2.9 | 3.8 | 19.5 |
| Imports from other countries or unknown | 0.8 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 81.1 | 82.2 |
| Imports from all countries | 92.6 | 23.5 | 27.1 | 115.7 | 258.9 |
| 1) Both goods and services that are processed for exports are shown in the table. | |||||
| 2) The ‘rest of the world or unknown’ group comprises all other countries in the world, including an unknown group. When linking the data from the National Accounts with the statistics on International Trade in Goods and International Trade in Services, part of the import and/or export value cannot be allocated to a country. |
|||||
European production chains continue to be essential, but importance of EU as supplier has declined
Table 7.6.2 shows the same figures as Table 7.6.1, but with a focus on the relative importance of the EU and the change compared to the previous year. It is notable, firstly, that the Netherlands plays an important role in intraregional trade within the European single market, as previously highlighted by a study by Baldwin & Lopez-Gonzalez (2015). A significant proportion of imports incorporated into exports came from the EU and then went to another (or the same) EU country. In 2023, this involved €44.4 billion, or 12.4% of total imports for the purpose of intermediate consumption. Many Dutch imports from the EU (32%) came from Germany. This was 1 percentage point more than in 2022.noot3 Germany was followed by Belgium, with a 19.3% share of the total imports from the EU. Altogether, the imports used from all EU countries except Germany and Belgium amounted to the remaining 49.7%. The share of imports from the UK incorporated into exports to the EU was over 8% in 2023.
| Exports to | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| EU-27 (excluding the UK) | non-EU | |||
| billion euros | % | billion euros | % | |
| Imports from | ||||
| 2022 | ||||
| EU-27 (excluding the UK) | 45.5 | 41.3 | ||
| Non-EU | 52.7 | 133.7 | ||
| 2023* | ||||
| EU-27 (excluding the UK) | 44.4 | 41.3 | ||
| Non-EU | 48.2 | 125.0 | ||
| Change 2023* on 2022 | ||||
| EU-27 (excluding the UK) | –1.1 | –2.4 | 0 | 0.1 |
| Non-EU | –4.6 | –8.7 | –8.7 | –6.5 |
Decline in value of imports used for exports mainly due to goods
Section 7.5 showed that the value of imported goods and services incorporated into exports declined slightly in 2023. For both domestic exports and services exports, it was the required imports of goods that fell, while the required imports of services rose. This is mainly explained by a drop in prices.
The decrease in the value of goods imports incorporated into exports is explained by a lower import value from all the regions and countries represented separately in Table 7.6.1. This was particularly the case for the miscellaneous category ‘other countries or unknown’ (down by €10 billion compared to 2022), Russia (down by €4.9 billion), other EU-27 countries (down by €2.4 billion), other Asian countries (down by €1.7 billion), Africa (down by €1.5 billion) and Belgium (down by €1.5 billion), all of which made a negative contribution. The only country or region in Table 7.6.1 that saw an increase in goods imports incorporated into Dutch exports was the US (up by €2.4 billion).
Services imports incorporated into exports, however, did increase in 2023 compared to 2022. The largest increase was reported by ‘other countries or unknown’ (up by €5.1 billion), other EU-27 countries (up by €0.7 billion), Germany (up by €0.5 billion), the US (up by €0.4 billion) and Belgium (up by €0.3 billion). Services imports from China, however, decreased (down by €0.3 billion). Services imports from ‘Americas, other’ (down by €0.2 billion) also declined, as fewer services were required for the production of exports.
Imports of American raw materials and mineral fuels for exports increased
The US is the second most important partner for Dutch imports that are incorporated into exports by enterprises in the Netherlands. These imports were worth €27.1 billion in 2023, and consisted of €14 billion worth of goods and €13.1 billion worth of services (Konietzny et al., 2025). Only imports in this category from Germany were worth more (€27.8 billion). The US accounted for 15% of the total imports incorporated into exports in 2023. This was 2 percentage points lower than in 2022 and 2021 (13% in both years). While total imports incorporated into exports decreased in 2023, imports in this category from the US increased. Compared to 2022, imports from the US incorporated into Dutch exports increased by €2.8 billion, or 11%. In 2022, they had increased even faster, by €5.7 billion or 30% compared to 2021.
When analysing the composition of imports from the US incorporated into exports, we see that crude oil and petroleum products, with an import value of €6.8 billion, accounted for more than a quarter (see Figure 7.6.3). In 2022, the value was €4.9 billion and in 2021 it was only €2.9 billion (CBS, 2025b). This sharp increase can be explained by the fact that Russia is no longer the main supplier of crude oil. In response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the EU imposed strict restrictions on the imports of mineral fuels from Russia to demonstrate its solidarity with Ukraine (European Commission, 2025). The US took over Russia’s position as main supplier of crude oil and petroleum products. The war caused global crude oil prices to rise, giving the import value from the US an additional boost. However, it should be noted that import prices in 2023 were lower than they were in 2022 (CBS, 2025a).
| Categorie | 2023* | 2022 |
|---|---|---|
| Crude oil and petroleum products | 6819 | 4860 |
| Royalties | 5319 | 5487 |
| Other business services | 3644 | 3436 |
| Natural gas and industrial gas | 3607 | 2887 |
| Transport services | 1286 | 996 |
| ICT services | 1017 | 1021 |
| Specialised machinery | 837 | 733 |
| Financial services | 676 | 624 |
| Industrial services | 538 | 556 |
| Organic chemical products | 440 | 575 |
| Other goods and services | 2880 | 3136 |
Other important US imports incorporated into exports included payments for the use of intellectual property (which make up 20% of the import value of goods and services from the US that are incorporated into exports), business services (13%) and natural gas (13%). Imports of natural gas in particular rose significantly in 2023 compared to the previous year (by €720 million or 25%), despite declining prices on the global market. Liquefied natural gas from the US thus compensated the sharp decline in imports of natural gas from Russia. Payments for the use of intellectual property, by contrast, declined slightly, both in terms of value and share. In 2022, this had been the most important category in imports from the US incorporated into Dutch exports. The exports generated using inputs from the US cover a wide range of goods and services. These include crude oil and petroleum products, but also business services and ICT services. Crude oil and petroleum products mainly comprised refined petroleum products that were the result of refining crude oil from the US. The main destinations for imports from the US that were incorporated into Dutch exports were Germany (16%), the US itself (8%), Belgium (8%) and France (6%).
7.7Analysing export-related imports in more detail
Sections 7.5 and 7.6 have mainly focused on macroeconomic changes and the geographical breakdown of imports that are incorporated into Dutch exports. In addition to this perspective, it is also relevant to consider the product level, as in the previous section on the US. Did macroeconomic changes in 2023 mainly concern changes in the import values of certain goods or services, for example, from non-EU countries?noot4
The Netherlands mainly imports raw materials and mineral fuels for exports
Figure 7.7.1noot5 shows the composition of the goods imports used in the production of Dutch exports in 2023, by country of origin. This figure does not include re-exports, as these are not used in the Dutch economy. Nor are goods that cannot be linked to a particular country included in this analysis. The latter concerns the flow between ‘other countries or unknown’ as presented in Figure 7.6.1. We distinguish between five goods categories, based on the SITC-1 classification.
Imports of raw materials and mineral fuels with a total value of €51.0 billion were required to produce exports in 2023. Enterprises in the Netherlands imported machinery and transport equipment to the value of €17.5 billion to be incorporated into exports, followed by €15.9 billion in manufactured products, €11.3 billion in food and beverages, and €10.2 in chemical products.
In 2023, goods imports incorporated into exports stood at €105.8 billion. This was still €188.8 billion in 2022 – a decline of €12.9 billion or 11%. Imports of raw materials and mineral fuels contributed the most to the decline in goods imports incorporated into exports, with a decrease of €7.8 billion, followed by chemical products with a decrease of €3.1 billion and machinery and transport equipment with a decrease of €2.1 billion. In percentage terms, imports of chemical products declined by the most (–23%), followed by raw materials and mineral fuels (–13%). Goods imports from the EU declined less sharply in 2023 (–7%) than goods import from non-EU countries (–14%). A notable decrease was seen in goods imports from China incorporated into exports, with a decrease of €1.5 billion (–30%).
| Belgium | Germany | Other EU | Ukraine | Russia | UK | Europe, other | Africa | US | Americas, other | China | Asia, other | Rest of the world | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Raw materials and mineral fuels |
3273 | 2509 | 5164 | 65 | 966 | 3815 | 4563 | 5679 | 11042 | 4035 | 234 | 9214 | 406 |
| Machinery and transport equipment |
1470 | 6228 | 3352 | 4 | 6 | 579 | 334 | 29 | 1558 | 95 | 1548 | 2246 | 10 |
| Industrial products | 2323 | 4844 | 4424 | 24 | 11 | 683 | 890 | 121 | 551 | 188 | 767 | 1021 | 18 |
| Food and beverages | 1727 | 3025 | 2828 | 341 | 23 | 188 | 144 | 920 | 104 | 947 | 94 | 754 | 231 |
| Chemical products | 1889 | 2452 | 2043 | 5 | 35 | 689 | 146 | 80 | 753 | 600 | 358 | 1158 | 12 |
| Total | 10682 | 19058 | 17810 | 439 | 1041 | 5954 | 6077 | 6828 | 14009 | 5866 | 3000 | 14393 | 677 |
Less than half of imported goods processed for exports originate from the EU
In 2023, the EU was once again the main import partner of the Netherlands by far. In Figure 7.7.1, the 27 countries that make up the EU are represented by Germany, Belgium and ‘Other EU’ countries. EU member states provided 45% of the goods imports required for Dutch exports. In 2022, that share was 43%. The increase in the EU’s share can be explained by the decline in prices of raw materials and mineral fuels, which peaked in 2022: the Netherlands imports the majority of its raw materials and mineral fuels from non-EU countries.
With an import value of €11 billion and a share of 22%, the US was the Netherlands’ main import partner for raw materials and mineral fuels that were incorporated in exports in 2023. The EU member states had a share of 21%. Other Asian countries, Africa and other European countries had shares of 18%, 11% and 9% respectively. Russia’s share was less than 2% in 2023, compared with 10% in 2022 and over 20% in 2021. The US took Russia’s position as the main supplier of mineral fuels (also see section 7.6).
Machinery and transport equipment was the second-most important category in imports of goods incorporated into exports. This category also includes semi-manufactured goods and components of machinery and transport equipment. Germany was the main supplier of machinery and transport equipment, with a share of 35%. The EU as a whole accounted for 63% of imports in this category. China accounted for 9% in 2023, compared with 12% in 2021 and 2022. Although the import value of machinery and transport equipment incorporated into exports did rise between 2022 and 2023, it increased by less than total imports in this category. The share of other Asian countries also decreased from 15% in 2022 to 13% in 2023. In particular, imports from Japan (down by €131 million) and Hong Kong (down by €81 million) fell sharply. This was due to significantly less imports of car parts from Japan incorporated into exports, possibly because passenger cars ceased rolling off the production line at the Nedcar car plant in the Netherlands in 2023.
Imports of manufactured products incorporated into exports are also dominated by EU countries, with a share of 73%. Among these countries, Germany was again the main supplier. The majority of food and beverage imports incorporated into exports also came from the EU, accounting for 67%. Imports from Ukraine accounted for 3% of the total in this category. Before the Russian invasion in 2021, Ukraine’s share was at least 6%. A total of 62% of chemical products incorporated into exports also originated from EU countries, with Germany and Belgium the main suppliers.
EU’s share in services imports incorporated into exports increased
As shown in section 7.5, the Netherlands also imports a large amount of services in order to enable exports. Services accounted for as much as 53% (€120.1 billion) of total imports for processing into exports in 2023, which was 6 percentage points more than the share of services imports the previous year. These imported services were used not only to facilitate services exports, such as software or consultancy services, but also to support the production of various goods exports, such as passenger cars, chemical products and machinery. This phenomenon is known as the ‘shift of manufacturing exports towards services’ and relates to the outsourcing of service activities by industrial enterprises (Bohn et al., 2022).
Figure 7.7.2 shows the top 6 leading imported services categories required for Dutch exports in 2023. The service category of ‘other business services’ came first, with an import value of €27.7 billion. Examples include management consultancy services and R&D. This category was followed by imports of transport services, with a value of €13.8 billion. Imports of royalties stood at €10.6 billion. These are payments for the use of intellectual property. Imports of ICT services had a value of €8.0 billion.
Imports of financial services (up by 10%) and other business services (up by 9%) saw the strongest relative growth in 2023 compared with 2022, while the imports of transport services fell (down by 7%). Services imports from the EU increased much faster in 2023 (up by 7%) than services imports from non-EU countries (up by 2%). A notable change was the decline in services imports from China (down by 30%). The Netherlands mainly imported less transport services (down by 49%).
The share of services imports incorporated into exports originating from the EU increased slightly in 2023 compared to 2022 and stood at 53%, and increase of 1 percentage point. As with goods imports, the EU accounted for over 50% in most categories of services imports. The EU’s share of imports used in exports was notably only lower for royalties, at 38%. This is due to the US’s dominance in imports of payments for the use of intellectual property. The EU’s share in imports incorporated into exports for financial services saw a sharp increase (up by 10 percentage points).
| Belgium | Germany | Other EU | Ukraine | Russia | UK | Europe, other | Africa | US | Americas, other | China | Asia, other | Rest of the world | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Other business services | 1608 | 3241 | 9063 | 7 | 57 | 4445 | 711 | 255 | 3644 | 1261 | 346 | 2680 | 430 |
| Transport services | 1505 | 1879 | 5522 | 29 | 32 | 816 | 767 | 278 | 1286 | 572 | 196 | 820 | 92 |
| Royalties | 163 | 483 | 3463 | 0 | 2 | 486 | 287 | 16 | 5319 | 286 | 13 | 119 | 4 |
| ICT services | 449 | 979 | 2689 | 3 | 10 | 1230 | 243 | 34 | 1017 | 285 | 24 | 957 | 57 |
| Other services | 533 | 1558 | 2488 | 1 | 18 | 1227 | 235 | 34 | 1112 | 105 | 32 | 292 | 36 |
| Financial services | 658 | 571 | 1349 | 0 | 22 | 598 | 125 | 18 | 676 | 92 | 57 | 227 | 49 |
| Total | 4916 | 8711 | 24573 | 40 | 142 | 8801 | 2368 | 635 | 13053 | 2600 | 668 | 5095 | 667 |
7.8References
References
Baldwin, R., & Lopez-Gonzalez, J. (2015). Supply-chain Trade: A Portrait of Global Patterns and Several Testable Hypotheses. The World Economy, 38(11), 1682–1721.
Bohn, T., Notten, T., Prenen, L., & Wong, K. F. (2022). Diensten in dozen: de rol van indirecte dienstenexport. In D. Herbers & J. Rooyakkers (eds.), Internationalisation Monitor 2022, second edition: Trade in services: Developments and obstacles. Statistics Netherlands (CBS).
Bohn, T., Konietzny, R., & Notten, T. (2024). Use of imports in the Dutch economy. In S. Creemers, M. Houben-van Herten & R. Voncken (eds.), Dutch Trade in Facts and Figures 2024: Export, import & investeringen. Statistics Netherlands (CBS).
CBS (2024a, 9 December). Domestic exports affected GDP growth negatively in 2023. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). Accessed on 24 May 2025.
CBS (2024b, 31 October). Drop in prices of goods imports and exports has slowed in 2024. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). Accessed on 28 May 2025.
CBS (2024c, 23 May). Publication revision National accounts, reporting period 2021. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). Accessed on 24 May 2025.
CBS (2024d, 5 July). Road vehicles are the main import for domestic usage. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). Accessed on 28 May 2025.
CBS (2025a, 30 June). Producer Price Index (PPI); output and import prices by product, 2021=100. [Dataset]. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). Accessed on 20 May 2025.
CBS (2025b, 14 May). Imports from US are mainly oil, gas and services. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). Accessed on 24 May 2025.
European Commission (2025, 24 February). Sanctions on energy. Accessed on 20 May 2025.
Franssen, L., Lemmers, O., Prenen, L., & Wong, K. F. (2020). Het Verenigd Koninkrijk afhankelijker van Europese Unie dan eerder gedacht. Economische Statistische Berichten, 105(4786), 268–271.
Konietzny, R., Notten, T., & Prenen, L. (2025). De verwevenheid van Nederland met de Verenigde Staten in internationale waardeketens. In S. Creemers & R. Voncken (eds.), Internationalisation Monitor 2025, first edition: United States. Statistics Netherlands (CBS).
Noten
In order to provide an accurate representation of the composition of imports of services exports, the services exports shown in Table 7.5.1 deviate from the services exports figures in the National Accounts, as reported in Chapter 6. In the recent revision of the National Accounts, both services imports and services exports have been adjusted upwards. This is largely due to adjustments in imports and exports of royalties and licences; see CBS (2024c). Services exports reported by the National Accounts stood at €268,279 million in 2023.
Upward adjustments to services imports and exports due to changes in the National Accounts have resulted in an increase in the flows for which the origin and destination are unknown. This is in comparison with the figures from the previous edition (Bohn et al., 2024), which were still based on the old, unadjusted figures.
In Bohn et al. (2024), which uses figures from before the change, the EU’s importance was greater in both absolute and relative terms. After the change, flows from non-EU to non-EU became much larger, mainly because the flow between ‘other countries or unknown’ increased significantly.
A more detailed breakdown of the goods categories at SITC-2 level discussed in this section is also available in the tables on the landing page of this publication.
The figures in this chapter were obtained by combining the data from the National Accounts with the International Trade in Goods statistics and the International Trade in Services statistics, with the data of the National Accounts taking precedence. Because of differences in definitions and methods, these figures differ from the other totals shown in StatLine and the other chapters of this publication.