Dutch earnings from exports
| Goods | Re-exports | Services | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Export value | 325 billion euros | 352 billion euros | 268 billion euros | 945 billion euros |
| Value added per euro of exports | 0,51 euro | 0,12 euro | 0,63 euro | 0,40 euro |
| Export earnings | 166 billion euros | 42 billion euros | 168 billion euros | 376 billion euros |
The Netherlands benefits greatly from exports. Over one-third of the country’s prosperity is due to the export of goods and services. Exports also account for many jobs – from port workers to IT professionals. How much did the Netherlands earn from exports in 2023? And who saw the benefit of these earnings? This chapter examines the Netherlands’ earnings from exports in 2023, compares these with previous years, and outlines the sectors and industries, countries and products that were most important. It also zooms in on the people behind exports. How many men and women are employed as a result of exports? In which sectors and industries do they work, what types of job do they do, what is their employment status and what is their level of education?
6.1Key findings
Contribution of exports to GDP
- Dutch goods and services exports amounted to €945.2 billion in 2023, down 1.4% from 2022.
- The value of goods exports fell by 4%. More specifically, the value of re-exports fell by more (almost 5%) than the export value of domestic exports (3%). This was due to lower volume and prices.
- The export value of services actually increased in 2023 compared to 2022: by almost 6% to a value of €268.3 billion. This was mainly due to price increases.
- Despite the smaller total gross export value, earnings from exports were €375.9 billion in 2023: almost 6% higher than a year earlier.
- After a decline in export earnings per euro of gross exports in 2022, the relative export earnings from domestic exports, re-exports and services rose again in 2023 to 51, 12 and 63 cents per euro of exports, respectively.
- 35.2% of Dutch GDP was earned from goods and services exports in 2023, down slightly from 2022 (35.7%).
- In 2023, the Netherlands’ GDP grew by just 0.08%. Lower production and lower exports of natural gas played a major role in this. Domestic exports from industries such as chemicals, agriculture and metals also made a negative contribution to GDP.
- Business sectors that traditionally earn a great deal from exports are manufacturing, business services and trade. They saw their earnings rise further in 2023. The mineral extraction, chemical and petroleum industries saw their earnings decline due to the normalisation of prices following the spike of 2022.
- Specialised machinery remains the largest category in domestic exports. Compared to a year earlier, earnings from specialised machinery originating from the Netherlands rose by 22% in 2023.
- The Netherlands earned the most from exports to Germany, the UK, the US, Belgium and France. After a decline in 2022, the importance of China as an export destination increased again in 2023.
Employment related to exports
- 31.4% of employment (or 2.6 million full-time jobs) in the Netherlands is related to exports. This includes 1.2 million direct and 1.4 million indirect full-time jobs. As such, international sales markets were just as important in 2023 as they were in 2022.
- In 2023, capital-intensive industries such as manufacturing and mineral extraction made a relatively large contribution to export earnings, while their share of export-related employment remained limited. Mineral extraction accounted for 2.3% of total export earnings: however, exports generated few jobs in that industry.
- Exports create significantly more employment in labour-intensive sectors: in business services, 29.1% of total employment is related to exports. In agriculture, forestry and fishing, exports generated proportionally more employment than earnings. In other sectors, the shares are similar.
- In business services and trade, a great deal of indirect employment is generated thanks to exports, since exporting firms rely on these services. By contrast, in manufacturing, many jobs are directly dependent on exports.
- As with export earnings, the top 5 export destinations that provide employment are Germany, the UK, the US, Belgium and France.
- Most export-related labour hours are worked in business and administrative jobs, followed by technical and commercial jobs. In agriculture, exports account for the largest share of labour hours, with 52% of all agricultural work hours tied to exports. The share is also relatively high for jobs in transport and logistics and in ICT.
- Men, lower-educated workers, and the self-employed account for the largest share of hours worked for exports in relative terms.
Data sources
- In this chapter, we use figures from CBS’s National Accounts. This makes it possible to provide an insight into the actual economic revenue of exports. At the time of writing, National Accounts data are available up to and including 2023.
- The National Accounts focus on the concept of transfer of ownership. These are goods transactions in which a Dutch firm or person transfers economic ownership of the goods to a foreign firm or person, and vice versa.
- Partly because of this, the figures in this chapter differ from those reported in Chapters 2 and 3, which are based on the concept of border crossing. These are movements of goods where the goods physically cross the border of the Netherlands, even if this does not involve a transfer of ownership.
Benchmark revision of the National Accounts
Once every five years, the Netherlands’ National Accounts are thoroughly revised in line with the policy of the European Commission. Part of this revision involves the introduction of new sources, methods and concepts to ensure optimal alignment between how the Dutch economy is presented with all the underlying statistics and sources, and the international guidelines regarding the compilation of National Accounts.
To avoid breaks in the time series, the definitive figures for previous years are also revised. As a result of this, the figures from previous editions of Dutch Trade in Facts and Figures were calculated differently to the figures in this edition. In order to provide full transparency regarding those differences, a conscious choice has been made in this chapter to present not only the figures for the most recent reporting year, but also those for previous years.
International trade according to the concepts of border crossing and transfer of ownership
Enterprises, and therefore also countries, are integrated within global value chains. From a business economics perspective, this is often the most financially viable choice. At a macroeconomic level, however, it can result in unfavourable economic dependencies. Such dependencies are difficult to analyse based on traditional trade statistics.
Traditional export figures take the concept of border crossing as a basis, meaning they indicate which goods physically enter or exit the Netherlands. These figures are indicators of the size and direction of trade flows, but they do not directly show how much the Netherlands ultimately gains from trade with other countries. After all, no account is taken of the costs associated with output and trade, such as imported raw materials, and the profits that ultimately remain in the Netherlands.
In this chapter, therefore, we make use of the figures from the National Accounts of Statistics Netherlands (CBS). The concept of transfer of ownership takes a central position in the National Accounts, which means that certain transactions that take place abroad can be classified as Dutch imports and exports even if the traded goods do not physically enter the Netherlands. This makes it possible to provide an insight into the actual economic return on exports to other countries.
Partly as a result of this, the figures in this chapter differ from the figures reported in Chapters 2 and 3 of this edition, which are based on the concept of border crossing. At the time of writing, 2023 is the most recent full year for which data are available in the National Accounts. For more information about the different concepts within statistics on the international trade in goods, see CBS (2025a).
Outline
This chapter is structured as follows. Section 6.2 covers the Netherlands’ earnings from exports in 2023. We present export earnings as a share of Dutch GDP and the types of export flows that contributed most to this. We then proceed by breaking down these earnings by sectors and industries as well as by products, and we present the countries that are our key markets in this respect. Section 6.3 highlights export-induced employment, distinguishing not only between direct and indirect employment, but also by different types of exports, the number of jobs that are attributable to exports and the sectors and industries in which exports play the most important role. We also analyse the hours worked on exports by the Dutch labour force, and the characteristics of the workers concerned.
6.2Contribution of exports to GDP
Value of Dutch exports down
Dutch goods and services exports amounted to €945.2 billion in 2023, down 1.4% from the previous year (see Figure 6.2.1).
The total exports of goods amounted to €676.9 billion in 2023, including both domestic exports and re-exports. Enterprises in the Netherlands exported €324.5 billion worth of domestic goods. These goods have either been produced or undergone significant processing in the Netherlands. Re-exports are goods that are imported by enterprises in the Netherlands but are then exported again with hardly any processing on Dutch territory. Re-exported goods are, however, temporarily owned by a Dutch-based enterprise while they are in the Netherlands. Re-exports had a total value of €352.4 billion in 2023. The value of goods exports was down by 4.0% compared to 2022, but the value of re-exports fell at a faster rate (down by 4.9%) than that of domestic exports (down by 3.0%).
The export value of services actually increased by 5.9% in 2023 compared to the previous year, to reach a value of €268.3 billion. If a person in the Netherlands is paid for services provided to a person based abroad, this represents an export of Dutch services. For example, if an engineer flies to China on behalf of a Dutch construction company to provide advice on construction activities, this is described as an export of engineering services to China. Similarly, payments for intellectual property, also referred to as royalties, and payments for software licences are also included in the trade in services (CBS, 2017).
| jaar | Domestic exports | Re-exports | Services exports |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2023* | 324.5 | 352.4 | 268.3 |
| 2022 | 334.6 | 370.6 | 253.3 |
| 2021 | 279.2 | 281.0 | 210.5 |
Value of goods exports down due to both volume and price decreases…
An increase or decrease in trade values does not necessarily mean that a higher or lower volume of goods is being traded. After all, the value of trade is the result of the quantity of goods and services exported and the prices paid. Table 6.2.2 shows that the decrease of the total Dutch export value in 2023 was a direct effect of both a decrease in volume and a fall in prices, by 0.5% and 0.9%, respectively. However, there are clear differences between export categories.
In 2023, prices of exported goods fell compared to the previous year, particularly for re-exports.
The volume of re-exports grew only minimally in 2023, while fewer domestic goods were exported abroad. This is very different to the picture in 2022, which was characterised by strong increases in the value of goods exports, driven by sharp price rises in both consumer goods (CBS, 2025b) and manufactured products (CBS, 2025c).
… services exports on the rise mainly due to price increases
The increase in the value of Dutch services exports was largely attributable to price rises in 2023. In 2023, services were on average 5.2% more expensive than one year earlier, while the export volume grew by 0.6%. This means that, even after the strong increases in volume and prices seen the previous year, services exports continued to grow in 2023 across value, volume and price, albeit at a different rate.
| 2022 | 2023* | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| change in value | change in volume | change in price | change in value | change in volume | change in price | |
| Type of exports | % | |||||
| Exports of goods and services | 24.4 | 4.4 | 19.1 | –1.4 | –0.5 | –0.9 |
| Goods exports | 25.9 | 1.6 | 23.9 | –4,0 | –1,0 | –3.1 |
| Domestic exports | 19.8 | –1.9 | 22.1 | –3,0 | –2.2 | –0.9 |
| Re-exports | 31.9 | 5.1 | 25.5 | –4.9 | 0.1 | –5,0 |
| Services exports | 20.3 | 11.9 | 7.5 | 5.9 | 0.6 | 5.2 |
Price changes can have many causes, such as increased costs of raw materials, labour and/or transport, exchange rate fluctuations, changes in international supply and demand, and – especially recently – import tariffs or export restrictions. In turn, these price changes may affect volume. When prices rise, the quantity demanded may fall, especially if suitable alternatives are available. Sometimes, the volume may also increase temporarily, as foreign customers build up their inventories in anticipation of future price increases or in response to uncertainty. Conversely, they may postpone purchases if they expect prices to fall.
Dutch earnings from exports increased, despite declining export value
As noted, the total value of Dutch exports was down in 2023. But what did that mean for the Netherlands’ export earnings? From the €945.2 billion of Dutch goods and services exported in 2023, the Netherlands earned €375.9 billion. We also refer to this as the value added generated by exports. This means that firms in the Netherlands earned an average of 40 cents for every euro of gross exports. In 2022, that figure stood at 37 cents and the Netherlands earned a total amount of €355.0 billion from exports of goods and services.
The Netherlands therefore earned 5.9% more from exports in 2023, year on year, despite the decline in total gross export value.
The value generated from each euro of services exports has been steadily increasing
We do not earn the same amount from each euro of gross exports. Figure 6.2.3 shows that services exports yielded nearly 63 eurocents per euro in 2023, and domestic exports yielded 51 eurocents. Each euro of domestic exports generated 3.2 eurocents more in earnings in 2023 than in 2022. This was largely due to falling prices of imported raw materials and fuels, which also reduced the import content of exports (see Chapter 7 of this edition). Lower import costs meant that less import value was required to produce those exports in 2023. The contribution of re-exports, by contrast, is much more limited. These exports require a relatively high level of imports, which keeps earnings from this type of exports considerably lower. In 2023, earnings were 12 eurocents for every euro of re-exports. Nevertheless, since re-exports were the largest type of exports by value, they still generated €42 billion for enterprises in the Netherlands.
Services exports continued to generate more income, rising from nearly 59 eurocents per euro in 2021 to almost 63 eurocents in 2023. In 2023, enterprises in the Netherlands earned, on average, slightly more from goods exports than in the previous year. This increase applied to both domestically produced goods and imported goods destined for re-export.
| type | 2021 | 2022 | 2023* |
|---|---|---|---|
| Domestic exports | 50.8 | 47.9 | 51.1 |
| Re-exports | 13.3 | 10.9 | 11.9 |
| Services exports | 58.9 | 61.0 | 62.6 |
Export contraction weighs on GDP growth
In addition to earnings from exports of goods and services, Dutch GDP is composed of earnings from domestic expenditure. Domestic expenditure represents the demand for goods and services within the Netherlands and consists of household and government consumption expenditure, investments, and inventory movements. In 2022, total export earnings accounted for 35.7% of GDP. This stood at 35.2% in 2023.
In 2022, the economy benefited from a strong rebound following the COVID-19 pandemic. By 2023, that temporary boost had worn off. At an average of 10%, inflation was exceptionally high in 2022, though many households and enterprises were able to accommodate the price rises temporarily (Schovers, 2023). In 2023, the structural impact of reduced purchasing power became more pronounced, even though inflation fell to 3.8% (CBS, 2025d). Although the Netherlands’ GDP did grow again in 2023, the increase was very modest at just 0.08%. Figure 6.2.4 shows that domestic expenditure made a positive contribution of 0.42 percentage points and services exports contributed 0.07 percentage points. These were also the drivers behind the growth of Dutch GDP in 2022. The contribution of domestic exports fell, with lower production and exports of natural gas playing a major role. Domestic exports from industries and sectors such as chemicals, agriculture and metals also showed a decrease in growth (CBS, 2024). Re-exports did not contribute to the change in GDP.
| Jaar | Domestic expenditure | Domestic exports | Re-exports | Services exports |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2022 | 2.721 | -0.156 | -0.075 | 2.517 |
| 2023* | 0.42 | -0.415 | -0.001 | 0.070 |
More than three-quarters of earnings in manufacturing due to exports
Table 6.2.5 shows that there are significant differences in the extent to which economic sectors benefit from the domestic market and the international market. The export earnings shown in the table include both earnings from a sector’s direct exports and earnings generated indirectly by supplying exporting industries and sectors.
As might be expected, the public sector depended the most on domestic expenditure as a source of earnings. In 2023, only 2.5% of earnings originated from the export of goods and services in this sector. At €204.7 billion, public administration, education and health care saw the highest revenues from the domestic market by a long way. Domestic expenditure was also a very important source of earnings for construction and for the culture and recreation industry.
Dutch manufacturing, business services and trade earned the most from the export of goods and services, in absolute terms. These three sectors together accounted for almost two-thirds of the Netherlands’ earnings from exports. Mining and quarrying, manufacturing, and agriculture, forestry and fishing were the most dependent on other countries for their earnings.
| Domestic expenditure | Exports | % of exports in total value added | |
|---|---|---|---|
| billion euros | % | ||
| Public administration, education and health care | 204.7 | 5.3 | 2.5 |
| Business services | 75.5 | 86.1 | 53.3 |
| Financial services and real estate activities | 106.6 | 27.6 | 20.6 |
| Trade | 61.3 | 65.2 | 51.5 |
| Manufacturing | 29.2 | 88.3 | 75.2 |
| Transportation and storage | 14.5 | 30.3 | 67.7 |
| Information and communication | 22.7 | 24.3 | 51.8 |
| Construction | 44.6 | 4.6 | 9.4 |
| Energy supply, water companies and waste management | 15.3 | 9.7 | 38.8 |
| Accommodation and food services | 15.5 | 4.4 | 22.1 |
| Culture, recreation and other services | 20.9 | 3.3 | 13.6 |
| Mining and quarrying | 2.5 | 8.7 | 77.9 |
| Agriculture, forestry and fishing | 5.6 | 13.4 | 70.6 |
Transportation and storage sector and mining and quarrying industry saw export earnings decline
Figure 6.2.6 focuses on the sectors and industries that generated at least half of their earnings from exports in 2023, differentiating between the different types of exports: domestic goods, goods destined for re-exports and services exports. It also shows changes in export earnings since 2021.
Five of the seven sectors that generate at least half of their earnings from exports saw their earnings increase in 2023, year on year. Only the transportation sector and mining and quarrying reported lower export earnings. The strong growth in export earnings from mining and quarrying in 2022 was largely due to the rise in the price of mineral fuels (Prenen et al., 2024). Figure 6.2.6 also shows that a substantial part of earnings in the manufacturing sector came from domestic exports, that the trade sector earned a significant share from re-exports, and that the services sector, unsurprisingly, earned a great deal from services exports. The transportation and storage sector and business services sector earned more from goods re-exports than the manufacturing sector did.
| Bedrijfstak | Jaar | Domestic exports | Re-exports | Services exports |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Manufacturing | 2023*, Manufacturing | 74.6 | 1.5 | 12.2 |
| Manufacturing | 2022, Manufacturing | 67.3 | 1.3 | 10.7 |
| Manufacturing | 2021, Manufacturing | 64.8 | 1.3 | 8.1 |
| Business services |
2023*, Business services |
18.5 | 5.4 | 62.2 |
| Business services |
2022, Business services |
17.6 | 4.9 | 55.7 |
| Business services |
2021, Business services |
16.2 | 4.7 | 46.9 |
| Trade | 2023*, Trade | 27.8 | 25.1 | 12.3 |
| Trade | 2022, Trade | 27.1 | 24.2 | 11.4 |
| Trade | 2021, Trade | 25.9 | 23.4 | 11 |
| Transportation and storage |
2023*, Transportation and storage |
6.0 | 3.7 | 20.7 |
| Transportation and storage |
2022, Transportation and storage |
5.8 | 3.6 | 22.9 |
| Transportation and storage |
2021, Transportation and storage |
5.1 | 3.1 | 17.1 |
| Information and communication |
2023*, Information and communication |
3.3 | 1.2 | 19.8 |
| Information and communication |
2022, Information and communication |
3.1 | 1.1 | 19.1 |
| Information and communication |
2021, Information and communication |
3.0 | 1.1 | 15.1 |
| Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
2023*, Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
12.6 | 0.3 | 0.6 |
| Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
2022, Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
11.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 |
| Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
2021, Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
11.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 |
| Mining and quarrying |
2023*, Mining and quarrying |
7.2 | 0.2 | 1.3 |
| Mining and quarrying |
2022, Mining and quarrying |
12.4 | 0.2 | 1.3 |
| Mining and quarrying |
2021, Mining and quarrying |
4.6 | 0.1 | 0.7 |
The machinery sector and the food, beverages and tobacco industry earn the most from domestic exports
Figure 6.2.7 focuses on the earnings generated in the manufacturing sector from domestic expenditure and exports. As shown in table 6.2.5, in 2023 three-quarters of manufacturing earnings were generated from the direct or indirect export of goods and services. The significance of exports for this sector is also reflected in figure 6.2.7.
The machinery sector and the food, beverages and tobacco industry earned the most from exports, particularly domestic exports. In absolute terms, these sectors of manufacturing also earned the most from domestic expenditure. The two smallest manufacturing sectors in terms of value added were the most dependent on domestic earnings.
Services exports played a limited role in most manufacturing sectors, except for the pharmaceutical industry and other manufacturing and repairs. Goods re-exports did not constitute a major source of revenue in any sector of Dutch manufacturing.
Sharp fall in earnings in chemicals industry
In 2022, chemicals industry still ranked third in Figure 6.2.7, with a total value added of €15 billion. Traditionally, this industry has had high energy consumption and was also faced with a sharp rise in import prices: the prices of imported goods for the chemical industry rose by no less than 40% in 2022 (see Chapter 7). The industry also had to contend with lower investment and competition from abroad (Schalkwijk, 2025). All this resulted in a decline in production capacity (CBS, 2025e), which led to a decline in both export volume and the corresponding revenues in 2023.
| A66_2digit | Domestic exports | Re-exports | Services exports | Domestic expenditure |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Machinery | 17.4 | 0.2 | 1.5 | 5.0 |
| Food, beverages and tobacco |
14.6 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 7.3 |
| Metal products | 4.5 | 0.2 | 1.2 | 4.1 |
| Pharmaceuticals | 5.4 | 0.1 | 2.8 | 0.5 |
| Electrotechnical | 5.5 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 1.5 |
| Chemicals | 6.1 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.6 |
| Other manufacturing and repair |
2.6 | 0.2 | 2.8 | 1.6 |
| Timber, paper and graphic |
2.5 | 0.1 | 0.7 | 2.1 |
| Motor vehicles and trailers |
3.2 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.7 |
| Electrical appliances | 3.0 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 |
| Rubber and plastics | 2.4 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 1.1 |
| Building materials | 0.9 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 1.7 |
| Petroleum | 1.9 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.2 |
| Basic metals | 1.7 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.3 |
| Furniture | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.3 |
| Other transport equipment |
1.4 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.3 |
| Textiles, clothing and leather |
0.9 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.4 |
Earlier price increases were partly corrected in 2023, though not uniformly across all sectors and industries
Table 6.2.2 showed that the decline in the aggregate Dutch export value in 2023 was a direct effect of falls in both volume and prices, by 0.5% and 0.9% respectively. The table shows a clear difference between goods and services exports. For goods, export volume fell by 1%, while prices declined on average by over 3%. By contrast, the volume of services exports actually increased by 0.6%, and prices rose by a total of 5.2%.
With this in mind, how are we to interpret the export earnings of the various sectors and industries in the Netherlands? Table 6.2.8 presents the changes in value, volume and prices of exports in 2022 and 2023 relative to the previous year. It only involves domestic goods exports (the export of goods manufactured in the Netherlands), shifting the focus back to Dutch manufacturing.
The year 2022 was marked by sharp price rises (CBS, 2025d). These exceptional rises were the result of an unusual combination of global economic and geopolitical factors, with the energy crisis, the consequences of the war in Ukraine, and ongoing disruptions to global supply chains being the main contributors.
This led to higher costs across virtually all sectors and industries – costs which were largely passed on in export prices. In 2023, this was partially reversed, particularly in sectors and industries that had experienced the highest price rises in 2022, such as the mining and quarrying industry and the oil-refining industry. Also, the food, beverages and tobacco industry, the timber, paper and printing industry, chemical industry, commercial services, and other manufacturing and repairs saw price rises exceeding 20% in 2022 followed by price drops in 2023, albeit of a lesser magnitude. In other sectors and industries, prices continued to rise, as was the case in agriculture, the textile, clothing and leather sector, and the electrical equipment industry.
While price changes are often influenced by inflation and raw material prices, volume changes provide a better indication of the actual economic activities and how trade has actually changed across the different sectors and industries. Dutch forestry and fishing, mining and quarrying, timber, paper and printing industry, chemical industry, building materials industry, furniture industry and the miscellaneous category ‘other’, covering non-commercial services and personal services, including institutions operating outside the market mechanism, all experienced a decline in their export volume in 2023 of at least 10% compared to the year before. Mining and quarrying topped the list, with a decline in export volume of 31.7%. This was partly because the Netherlands’ total natural gas production dropped by one-third in 2023 compared to the previous year, largely as a result of the scaling back of production from the Groningen gas field (Ministry of Climate Policy and Green Growth, 2024). This also means that exports of the Groningen low-calorific gas to our neighbouring countries will fall to almost zero at the end of this decade (Gasunie, 2024). The Dutch machinery and motor vehicle and trailer industries, on the other hand, experienced an increase in export volume in 2023, at 16.0% and 10.5% respectively.
| 2022 | 2023* | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| change in value | change in volume | change in price | change in value | change in volume | change in price | |
| Sector and industry | % | |||||
| Agriculture | –1.6 | –8.7 | 7.7 | 8.1 | –1.4 | 9.6 |
| Forestry and fishing | –16.9 | –28.7 | 16.5 | –20.8 | –11.8 | –10.2 |
| Mining and quarrying | 134.9 | –24.9 | 212.8 | –46.6 | –31.7 | –21.8 |
| Food, beverages and tobacco industry | 23.9 | 0.2 | 23.7 | –0.1 | –5.6 | 5.8 |
| Textile, clothing, leather and shoe industry | –12.3 | –18.4 | 7.4 | 3.8 | –4.4 | 8.7 |
| Timber, paper and printing industry | 10.8 | –10.6 | 23.8 | –15.7 | –12.8 | –3.3 |
| Oil-refining industry | 66.1 | –1.9 | 69.2 | –8.6 | 8.1 | –15.4 |
| Chemical industry | 20.1 | –4.8 | 26.2 | –20.1 | –13 | –8.1 |
| Pharmaceutical industry | 8.3 | 4.8 | 3.3 | –2.7 | –6.5 | 4.0 |
| Rubber and plastics industry | 5.6 | –9.6 | 16.8 | –8.4 | –8.1 | –0.3 |
| Building materials industry | 13.3 | 3.9 | 9.0 | –5.6 | –12.6 | 8.1 |
| Basic metal industry | 19.1 | –3.9 | 24.0 | –15.9 | –7.6 | –8.9 |
| Metal products industry | 10.1 | –4.4 | 15.2 | 0.8 | 2.0 | –1.2 |
| Electrotechnical industry | 7.3 | –2.0 | 9.6 | –3.2 | –6.5 | 3.6 |
| Electronics industry | 7.2 | 0.4 | 6.7 | 8.6 | 1.9 | 6.6 |
| Machinery | 8.8 | 5.3 | 3.3 | 21.0 | 16.0 | 4.3 |
| Motor vehicle and trailer industry | 14.6 | 8.3 | 5.8 | 15.2 | 10.5 | 4.2 |
| Other transport equipment | 3.1 | –0.5 | 3.6 | 10.3 | 5.4 | 4.6 |
| Furniture industry | 8.0 | –2.7 | 11.0 | –11.0 | –12.4 | 1.6 |
| Other manufacturing and repairs | 1.4 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 15.5 | 11.2 | 3.9 |
| Commercial services | 24.6 | –4.0 | 29.9 | –0.5 | 3.1 | –3.5 |
| Public administration, education and care | 20.7 | –2.0 | 23.3 | –5.9 | 0.3 | –6.2 |
| Other | 47.8 | 42.4 | 3.8 | –19.9 | –16.9 | –3.5 |
Exports of specialised machinery are the largest source of earnings for the Netherlands
Figure 6.2.9 shows the fifteen most important types of goods in 2023 in terms of export earnings from domestic production. It also shows the aggregate export value, providing an insight into how much value added a product generates relative to aggregate export value.
Specialised machinery remained the largest source of earnings from domestic exports in 2023. This category includes equipment for the semiconductor industry, agricultural machinery, medical devices and installations for the food industry. Compared to the previous year, earnings from specialised machinery originating from the Netherlands rose by 22% in 2023. These earnings comprised 65% of gross export value. In relative terms, most earnings per gross export value were made in natural gas, raw animal and vegetable materials, and fruit and vegetables. Natural gas yields high earnings because it is extracted on Dutch territory, so exports of natural gas require few imports.
In terms of value, crude oil and petroleum products are the most important domestic export products. However, these products yield relatively low earnings as they require substantial imports. The Netherlands hardly extracts any crude oil on its own territory and therefore has to import almost all of it. The imported crude oil is then processed in refineries in the Netherlands into, for example, fuels and raw materials for the chemicals industry. Plastics also require a relatively large amount of imports.
| SITC2 | Jaar | Value added | Gross export value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Specialised machinery |
2023*, Specialised machinery |
19.4 | 10.6 |
| Specialised machinery |
2022, Specialised machinery |
15.9 | 9.5 |
| Specialised machinery |
2021, Specialised machinery |
14.8 | 7.7 |
| Fruit and vegetables |
2023*, Fruit and vegetables |
7.9 | 3.7 |
| Fruit and vegetables |
2022, Fruit and vegetables |
6.3 | 3.6 |
| Fruit and vegetables |
2021, Fruit and vegetables |
6.1 | 2.8 |
| Road transport vehicles |
2023*, Road transport vehicles |
7.5 | 6.4 |
| Road transport vehicles |
2022, Road transport vehicles |
6.7 | 6.1 |
| Road transport vehicles |
2021, Road transport vehicles |
6.1 | 5.2 |
| Raw animal and vegetable products |
2023*, Raw animal and vegetable products |
7.1 | 2.8 |
| Raw animal and vegetable products |
2022, Raw animal and vegetable products |
6.8 | 3.1 |
| Raw animal and vegetable products |
2021, Raw animal and vegetable products |
8.1 | 2.8 |
| Various machinery | 2023*, Various machinery | 6.8 | 3.4 |
| Various machinery | 2022, Various machinery | 5.4 | 2.9 |
| Various machinery | 2021, Various machinery | 5.4 | 2.7 |
| Crude oil and petroleum products |
2023*, Crude oil and petroleum products |
6.3 | 33.8 |
| Crude oil and petroleum products |
2022, Crude oil and petroleum products |
7.5 | 37 |
| Crude oil and petroleum products |
2021, Crude oil and petroleum products |
4.4 | 22.2 |
| Dairy products and eggs |
2023*, Dairy products and eggs |
6.0 | 3.6 |
| Dairy products and eggs |
2022, Dairy products and eggs |
5.6 | 4.1 |
| Dairy products and eggs |
2021, Dairy products and eggs |
4.1 | 2.9 |
| Meat and meat products |
2023*, Meat and meat products |
5.1 | 3.7 |
| Meat and meat products |
2022, Meat and meat products |
4.7 | 4.0 |
| Meat and meat products |
2021, Meat and meat products |
4.2 | 3.4 |
| Electrical appliances |
2023*, Electrical appliances |
4.6 | 3.7 |
| Electrical appliances |
2022, Electrical appliances |
4 | 3.6 |
| Electrical appliances |
2021, Electrical appliances |
3.3 | 3.2 |
| Natural gas | 2023*, Natural gas | 4.2 | 0.6 |
| Natural gas | 2022, Natural gas | 8.1 | 0.8 |
| Natural gas | 2021, Natural gas | 3.2 | 0.7 |
| Medicaments and pharmaceutical products |
2023*, Medicaments and pharmaceutical products |
4.1 | 2.1 |
| Medicaments and pharmaceutical products |
2022, Medicaments and pharmaceutical products |
3.4 | 1.9 |
| Medicaments and pharmaceutical products |
2021, Medicaments and pharmaceutical products |
3.1 | 1.7 |
| Various manufactured goods |
2023*, Various manufactured goods |
3.9 | 2.2 |
| Various manufactured goods |
2022, Various manufactured goods |
3.4 | 2.3 |
| Various manufactured goods |
2021, Various manufactured goods |
3.7 | 2.2 |
| Metal products | 2023*, Metal products | 3.8 | 2.2 |
| Metal products | 2022, Metal products | 3.5 | 2.3 |
| Metal products | 2021, Metal products | 3.3 | 2 |
| Plastics in primary forms |
2023*, Plastics in primary forms |
3.1 | 4.8 |
| Plastics in primary forms |
2022, Plastics in primary forms |
3.8 | 6.6 |
| Plastics in primary forms |
2021, Plastics in primary forms |
3.9 | 4.9 |
| Other chemical products |
2023*, Other chemical products |
2.8 | 2.6 |
| Other chemical products |
2022, Other chemical products |
2.9 | 3.1 |
| Other chemical products |
2021, Other chemical products |
2.7 | 2.7 |
| 1) Top 15 product categories | |||
The Netherlands continues to earn the most from exports to Germany, UK and US
As noted, Dutch export earnings increased by 5.9% reaching €376 billion in 2023. But from which countries did firms in the Netherlands earn the most? Figure 6.2.10 presents the export destinations with the highest export earnings in 2023.
Germany has long been the country that generates the highest export earnings for the Netherlands, and in 2023 these earnings stood at €57.3 billion. The United Kingdom and the United States complete the top 3. In 2023, Dutch earnings grew for nearly all major export markets compared to 2022. Among the ten most important countries in terms of export earnings, only Switzerland saw a decline, driven by lower earnings from services exports, particularly in manufacturing services and maritime transport. Overall, EU countries accounted for 57% of Dutch export earnings, equivalent to €214 billion.
In 2023, earnings from exports to Germany rose by 1.6% compared to the previous year. The decline in earnings from domestic exports, particularly natural gas, was more than offset by the increase in earnings from services exports to Germany, mainly in travel and technical or trade-related services. Among the countries shown, earnings from exports to China grew the fastest. Although the absolute amounts were smaller, Dutch earnings from exports to China grew by no less than 38.3% compared to 2022. Contrary to the general trend, this was primarily due to higher export earnings from domestic products, in particular exports of specialised machinery. At the end of 2023, just before the export restrictions on equipment used in semiconductor production came into effect, the Netherlands exported a substantial volume of such equipment to China (Bloomberg, 2024). With growth exceeding 10%, earnings from exports to the United Kingdom and Spain are also noteworthy.
| land | Jaar | Domestic exports | Re-exports | Services exports |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 2023*, Germany | 25.2 | 7.3 | 24.8 |
| Germany | 2022, Germany | 26.8 | 7.3 | 22.3 |
| Germany | 2021, Germany | 22.1 | 6.9 | 17.7 |
| UK | 2023*, UK | 10.5 | 2.8 | 18.3 |
| UK | 2022, UK | 9.8 | 2.2 | 16.5 |
| UK | 2021, UK | 9.1 | 2.3 | 15.6 |
| US | 2023*, US | 9.3 | 2.7 | 16.7 |
| US | 2022, US | 8.4 | 2.4 | 16.0 |
| US | 2021, US | 7.1 | 2.3 | 15.3 |
| Belgium | 2023*, Belgium | 12.5 | 2.8 | 10.4 |
| Belgium | 2022, Belgium | 13.0 | 2.8 | 9.6 |
| Belgium | 2021, Belgium | 11.6 | 2.7 | 7.9 |
| France | 2023*, France | 8.8 | 3.2 | 10.7 |
| France | 2022, France | 8.9 | 3.1 | 9.4 |
| France | 2021, France | 7.7 | 2.9 | 6.7 |
| Switzerland | 2023*, Switzerland | 1.9 | 0.7 | 9.6 |
| Switzerland | 2022, Switzerland | 1.7 | 0.7 | 10.1 |
| Switzerland | 2021, Switzerland | 1.6 | 0.7 | 6.9 |
| Ireland | 2023*, Ireland | 1.7 | 0.6 | 9.4 |
| Ireland | 2022, Ireland | 1.0 | 0.6 | 9.8 |
| Ireland | 2021, Ireland | 0.9 | 0.5 | 7.8 |
| China | 2023*, China | 7.5 | 1.7 | 2.0 |
| China | 2022, China | 4.8 | 1.3 | 2.0 |
| China | 2021, China | 4.7 | 1.7 | 2.0 |
| Italy | 2023*, Italy | 4.2 | 1.8 | 4.7 |
| Italy | 2022, Italy | 4.3 | 1.7 | 4.1 |
| Italy | 2021, Italy | 4.1 | 1.7 | 3.1 |
| Spain | 2023*, Spain | 3.4 | 1.7 | 4.3 |
| Spain | 2022, Spain | 3.1 | 1.6 | 3.7 |
| Spain | 2021, Spain | 2.9 | 1.4 | 3.0 |
6.3Export-induced employment
| Goods | Re-exports | Services | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Direct employment | 451 dzd | 60 thousand | 721 thousand | 1,2 million |
| Indirect employyment | 628 dzd | 230 thousand | 523 thousand | 1,4 million |
Exports also create jobs, both directly and indirectly
Exports are of great importance to the Dutch economy, not only in terms of value added but also employment. Every Dutch export-related product is supported by a network of jobs. This applies not only to factories or offices that trade directly with other countries, but also to suppliers, transporters and service providers. For example, a shipload of machinery exported to Canada also means work for an accountant, a driver, a lubricant manufacturer and a developer of technical components. In this way, exports also indirectly create employment for firms that do not export themselves.
Direct and indirect employment are measured according to whether the enterprise a person works for is itself engaged in exports. An accountant working for an exporting enterprise is therefore counted as direct employment, whereas an accountant working at a supporting enterprise that does not export itself is counted as indirect employment.
Figure 6.3.1 shows that employment attributable to the exports of goods and services amounted to over 2.6 million full-time jobs (FTE) in 2023: 1.2 million direct and nearly 1.4 million indirect. This represented 31.4% of total employment in the Netherlands. As such, international sales markets were just as important in 2023 as they were in 2022. The majority of export-related jobs were not at firms actually trading across borders, but at firms providing supporting activities.
Export-related employment is higher in business services
Export-induced employment is closely interconnected with the value added generated by goods and services exports. Figure 6.3.2 again shows the sectors and industries that earned at least half of their value added from exports in 2023.
The share of Dutch manufacturing in total value added due to exports in 2023 significantly exceeded its export-related share in employment. The same applies to mining and quarrying, another capital-intensive industry. Even though mining and quarrying accounted for 2.3% of total export earnings, its exports created relatively few jobs in 2023.
The production of services is generally more labour-intensive, which is clearly reflected in the business services sector. While this sector generated nearly the same export earnings as manufacturing, it accounted for significantly more employment – 29.1% of total export-induced jobs. The agricultural sector, too, created a large number of jobs attributable to exports relative to its share in export earnings. In other sectors and industries, the shares of earnings and employment were more balanced.
| NLHL_H6 | Jaar | Total value added attributable to exports | Total employment attributable to exports |
|---|---|---|---|
| Manufacturing | 2023*, Manufacturing | 23.8 | 19.5 |
| Manufacturing | 2022, Manufacturing | 22.6 | 19 |
| Manufacturing | 2021, Manufacturing | 24.7 | 19.8 |
| Business services |
2023*, Business services |
23.2 | 29.1 |
| Business services |
2022, Business services |
22.3 | 29.6 |
| Business services |
2021, Business services |
22.6 | 29 |
| Trade | 2023*, Trade | 17.6 | 17.3 |
| Trade | 2022, Trade | 17.9 | 17.4 |
| Trade | 2021, Trade | 20.1 | 17.8 |
| Transportation and storage |
2023*, Transportation and storage |
8.2 | 9.1 |
| Transportation and storage |
2022, Transportation and storage |
9.2 | 9.3 |
| Transportation and storage |
2021, Transportation and storage |
8.4 | 9.4 |
| Information and communication |
2023*, Information and communication |
6.6 | 7.2 |
| Information and communication |
2022, Information and communication |
6.7 | 7.2 |
| Information and communication |
2021, Information and communication |
6.4 | 6.7 |
| Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
2023*, Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
3.6 | 4.9 |
| Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
2022, Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
3.5 | 5 |
| Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
2021, Agriculture, forestry and fishing |
3.9 | 5.6 |
| Mining and quarrying |
2023*, Mining and quarrying |
2.3 | 0.2 |
| Mining and quarrying |
2022, Mining and quarrying |
4 | 0.2 |
| Mining and quarrying |
2021, Mining and quarrying |
1.8 | 0.2 |
Business services exports mainly generates indirect jobs
Figure 6.3.3 shows employment in the same sectors and industries, broken down by type of exports and by type of employment (direct versus indirect). As exports contribute only marginally to employment in mining and quarrying, this category has been omitted.
In the business services sector, it is especially services exports that generate many jobs indirectly related to exports, ranging from accounting and marketing to legal advice. In 2023, these accounted for 486 thousand jobs out of a total of 759 thousand jobs in business services attributable to exports.
In manufacturing, the pattern was reversed: most export-induced jobs were direct, primarily tied to domestic exports. In trade, however, exports mainly created jobs at firms that do not produce goods themselves, such as transport companies or wholesalers, where re-exports play a significant role.
| categorie | Domestic exports | Re-exports | Services exports | Direct employment | Indirect employment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Business services | . | . | . | . | . |
| Exports | 206.7 | 49.8 | 502.8 | . | . |
| Employment | . | . | . | 273 | 486.3 |
| Manufacturing | . | . | . | . | . |
| Exports | 425.7 | 10.3 | 73.6 | . | . |
| Employment | . | . | . | 380.1 | 129.5 |
| Trade | . | . | . | . | . |
| Exports | 171.4 | 168.2 | 111.5 | . | . |
| Employment | . | . | . | 141.4 | 309.7 |
| Transportation and storage |
. | . | . | . | . |
| Exports | 53.8 | 33.4 | 151.8 | . | . |
| Employment | . | . | . | 111.8 | 127.2 |
| Information and communication |
. | . | . | . | . |
| Exports | 27 | 10 | 150.3 | . | . |
| Employment | . | . | . | 99.7 | 87.5 |
| Agrculture, forestry and fishing |
. | . | . | . | . |
| Exports | 119 | 2.8 | 5.1 | . | . |
| Employment | . | . | . | 68.5 | 58.4 |
Exports to Germany create the most jobs
Earlier, in Figure 6.2.10, we saw how firms in the Netherlands generated earnings from the export of goods and services to various countries in 2023. What does this mean for employment?
Figure 6.3.4 shows that the same ten countries lead to the highest level of export-induced employment. Logically, employment is highly correlated to the countries from which the Netherlands earns the most, including by type of export. The top 10 is therefore almost exactly identical to that in Figure 6.2.10. Only Italy and China swap places. Exports to Germany provided the most employment for the Netherlands: over 407 thousand jobs (FTE) in 2023. That was 5,300 more than in 2022 – an increase of 1.4%. The United Kingdom and the United States complete the top three. While earnings from exports to the US increased in 2023, export-induced employment actually decreased. This decline was seen mainly in financial services (Konietzny et al., 2025).
| land | Jaar | Domestic exports | Re-exports | Services exports |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 2023*, Germany | 162.0 | 50.3 | 194.9 |
| Germany | 2022, Germany | 165.8 | 51.3 | 184.8 |
| Germany | 2021, Germany | 171.3 | 51.1 | 159 |
| UK | 2023*, UK | 73.7 | 19.3 | 139.6 |
| UK | 2022, UK | 71.9 | 15.5 | 134.0 |
| UK | 2021, UK | 73.9 | 17.3 | 138.3 |
| US | 2023*, US | 59.6 | 18.9 | 117.3 |
| US | 2022, US | 56.9 | 17.1 | 121.3 |
| US | 2021, US | 52.4 | 17.2 | 136.3 |
| Belgium | 2023*, Belgium | 84.2 | 19.7 | 81.1 |
| Belgium | 2022, Belgium | 84.6 | 20.1 | 78.8 |
| Belgium | 2021, Belgium | 86.3 | 20.4 | 69.7 |
| France | 2023*, France | 59.3 | 22.3 | 75.1 |
| France | 2022, France | 59.5 | 21.9 | 71.9 |
| France | 2021, France | 61.0 | 21.9 | 57.5 |
| Switzerland | 2023*, Switzerland | 13.5 | 4.8 | 72.0 |
| Switzerland | 2022, Switzerland | 12.6 | 5.2 | 76.3 |
| Switzerland | 2021, Switzerland | 12.6 | 5.2 | 57.5 |
| Ireland | 2023*, Ireland | 11.2 | 3.9 | 72.9 |
| Ireland | 2022, Ireland | 7.7 | 4.1 | 79.8 |
| Ireland | 2021, Ireland | 7.6 | 3.5 | 69.2 |
| Italy | 2023*, Italy | 28.4 | 12.4 | 32.4 |
| Italy | 2022, Italy | 28.3 | 12.4 | 29.8 |
| Italy | 2021, Italy | 30.7 | 12.4 | 26.2 |
| China | 2023*, China | 46.4 | 11.6 | 14.9 |
| China | 2022, China | 34.1 | 9.4 | 16.0 |
| China | 2021, China | 35.6 | 12.2 | 16.3 |
| Spain | 2023*, Spain | 24.1 | 11.7 | 28.9 |
| Spain | 2022, Spain | 22.7 | 11.4 | 26.0 |
| Spain | 2021, Spain | 23.1 | 10.3 | 22.9 |
Most export-related hours worked in business and administrative occupations and technical occupations
By linking export data from a sector with information on workers’ personal characteristics within that sector, we can break down export-induced employment by occupation, gender, employment type and education level. Even though these personal details are based on hours worked rather than FTE positions, the interpretation remains the same.
Similar to 2022, 30% of the total hours worked by the Dutch labour force in 2023 were attributable to exports. Figure 6.3.5 shows a breakdown of these hours by occupational class. Most people in the Netherlands work in business and administrative roles, such as accountants, finance specialists, secretaries and transport planners. Next are technical occupations, including engineers, construction workers, machine fitters and assembly workers, but also bakers and butchers (ROA & CBS, 2014). In these occupational classes a relatively large number of hours are spent on activities that support exports. By contrast, occupations that are primarily domestically oriented, such as those in health care and education, involve very few labour hours attributable to exports. More than half of the hours worked in agriculture, an industry with a relatively high share of exports, are devoted to export-related activities.
| beroep | for domestic market | for exports |
|---|---|---|
| Business and administrative |
37.1 | 20.7 |
| Technical | 31.0 | 17.9 |
| Health care and well-being |
37.3 | 2.4 |
| Commercial | 20.34 | 11.74 |
| Managers | 13.5 | 8.5 |
| Teaching | 18.7 | 1.2 |
| ICT | 10.7 | 7.9 |
| Service-oriented | 14.6 | 3.8 |
| Transport and logistics |
9.2 | 8.4 |
| Public administration, security and legal |
9.6 | 1.8 |
| Creative and linguistic |
4.6 | 3.2 |
| Agriculture | 2.9 | 3.2 |
| Other | 0.7 | 0.6 |
Men with a permanent employment contract are the group most likely to work in exports
Figure 6.3.6 shows that men consistently dedicate a larger share of their working hours on export-related activities than women, regardless of employment contract type. This difference is most pronounced among those with permanent contracts: men with permanent contracts spend an average of 37% of their working hours on exports, compared to only 20% for women in the same category.
These differences can partly be attributed to the sectors and occupations in which men and women work. Men are more often represented in technical and industrial roles, where output and services are more likely to be export-oriented. Women, on the other hand, are more active in health care, education and administrative occupations, which primarily serve the domestic market. The same pattern is evident among the self-employed: male self-employed workers spend more hours on exports (37%) than female self-employed workers (27%).
| dienstverb | for domestic market | for exports |
|---|---|---|
| Women | . | . |
| Temporary contract | 24.4 | 6.5 |
| Permanent contract | 60.6 | 14.7 |
| Self-employed | 12.1 | 4.6 |
| Men | . | . |
| Temporary contract | 22.8 | 11.8 |
| Permanent contract | 65.2 | 38.4 |
| Self-employed | 25.4 | 15.1 |
Export-related work is highest among the lower-educated
Although workers with a higher level of education spend more hours on exports in absolute terms, workers with a lower level of education spend a relatively larger proportion of their working hours on export-related activities. The pattern in Figure 6.3.7 remained the same as in 2022. Among men with lower education, approximately 38% of hours worked were spent on export-related activities, compared with 35% for men with a higher level of education. The same trend holds for women: those with lower education spend over 25% of their working hours on export-related activities, versus approximately 21% for women with a higher level of education.
| Opleiding | for domestic market | for exports |
|---|---|---|
| Women | . | . |
| Lower level of education |
12.5 | 4.2 |
| Medium level of education |
35.6 | 8.7 |
| Higher level of education |
48.9 | 12.9 |
| Men | . | . |
| Lower level of education |
21.6 | 13.4 |
| Medium level of education |
44.4 | 26.0 |
| Higher level of education |
47.3 | 26.0 |
6.4References
References
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