International trade in goods
This chapter focuses on the international trade in goods. What did the Dutch goods trade look like in 2024? Which products were imported or exported more than a year before, and which were imported or exported less? What were the most important countries of origin and destination for the Dutch trade in goods? How did the Dutch market share in world trade change? How important was the Netherlands for the goods trade of other countries around the world? In this chapter, we answer these and many other questions by analysing the composition of Dutch goods imports and exports as well as the geographical dimension.
3.1Key findings
Dutch goods exports in 2024
- Dutch goods exports declined by 1.8% in 2024, for a total of €666.5 billion. The drop in export value was mainly reflected in domestic exports.
- The decline in export value was largely explained by lower prices. Export prices were 1.7% below those in 2023. In terms of export volume, there was a 0.1% drop. Volume declines in mineral fuels and transport equipment (including passenger cars and buses) were offset by higher volumes in chemical products (including pharmaceuticals) and manufactured goods.
- Europe remained the Netherlands’ primary export destination, as in previous years, with 76.5% of Dutch export value going to European countries.
- Two-thirds of all goods exported by the Netherlands went to the other 27 EU member states, representing €439.9 billion by value. The EU was thus the Netherlands’ most important market for goods exports in 2024.
- Machines and equipment were the most exported items in 2024, followed by manufactured goods and mineral fuels.
- Of all the Netherlands’ goods exports, 53.8% went to the five main trading partners: Germany, Belgium, France, the UK and the US.
- There are clear differences between product categories when it comes to domestic exports (produced in the Netherlands) and re-exports (produced elsewhere). The category of transport equipment consisted of 72% domestic exports. Raw materials and natural products (including flowers and plants) and food and beverages also included a high share of domestic exports. In the case of manufactured goods and machines and equipment, re-exports were higher.
- The closer a destination country is to the Netherlands, the higher the share of re-exports. Neighbouring countries such as Germany (60%) and Belgium (55%) received more re-exports than other major trading partners such as the UK (38%), the US (30%) or China (16%).
- Refined petroleum products, specialised machinery and parts, and phones, modems and routers were the Netherlands’ top three export products by value in 2024.
- The export value of refined petroleum products fell sharply due to declines in both price and volume. The growth in the export value of specialised machinery was due to a slight increase in prices. The export value of phones, modems and routers was slightly up on 2023. Prices for these goods declined slightly on average, while export volumes increased slightly.
- The export value of medicines and pharmaceuticals was sharply higher in 2024, year on year. In both cases, this increase in value came from a rise in export volumes; in the case of pharmaceuticals, prices also increased.
Dutch goods imports in 2024
- Dutch goods imports fell by 3.3% faster than goods exports in 2024. This brought imports to €585.8 billion.
- The decline in import value was mainly due to a drop in prices (–3.6%); in volume, there was a small increase (+0.3%). The volume decline in mineral fuels and transport equipment was offset by higher volume in chemical products and manufactured goods.
- Some 58% of all imported goods came from a European country. Of all regions, only the import value from Asia was higher in 2024 than in 2023.
- Of all goods imported by the Netherlands, 48% (or €279 billion) came from the other 27 EU member states. In 2024, Germany, the US and Belgium were the main trading partners for imports coming into the Netherlands.
- Machinery and manufactured goods were the most imported product categories, as in 2023.
- Of total Dutch imports, half came from the Netherlands’ five main trading partners: Germany, the US, Belgium, China and the UK. Imports of chemical products, transport equipment and machinery were the most concentrated among these five import partners.
- Crude oil, refined petroleum products, and phones, modems and routers were the top three imports of the Netherlands in 2024.
- The decline in crude oil imports is largely explained by a decrease in volume, but also in part by lower prices. Imported refined petroleum products actually saw a volume increase combined with a price decrease, as did phones, modems and routers.
- Import values of computers and pharmaceuticals were sharply higher in 2024 than a year earlier. In both cases, that value growth came from a growth in import volume, although the price also increased.
- Natural gas saw a sharp decline in the import price. The Netherlands also imported less natural gas in terms of volume in 2024. Overall, the import value of natural gas fell by almost 56% compared to 2023.
The Netherlands as a supplier of goods to other countries in 2023
- The Netherlands accounted for 3.3% of global goods exports in 2023. The Netherlands ranked as the world’s fourth largest export country in 2023 (in terms of goods) after China (15.0%), the US and Germany.
- Of all imports into Belgium, over 21% came from the Netherlands in 2023, making the Netherlands the main country of origin for Belgian goods imports. For Germany, the Netherlands was the second most important goods supplier.
- Of all goods imported by other 27 EU member states, some 6.4% came from the Netherlands in 2023. This made the Netherlands the third most important supplier of goods for the other 27 EU member states.
- In 2023, the Netherlands had a higher share in goods imports from Ghana and France (among others) than it did in 2015. Ghana imported a higher value of refined petroleum products from the Netherlands, in particular. In the case of France, it was mainly mobile phones and medicinal and pharmaceutical products.
- The Dutch share in German and Nigerian goods imports was lower in 2023 than it was in 2015. The Netherlands was less important as a supplier of pharmaceutical products to Germany, while for Nigeria it supplied less refined petroleum products.
The Netherlands as a buyer of goods from other countries in 2023
- Globally, the Netherlands was the eighth largest goods importer in 2023, after the US (13.7%), China, Germany, the UK, France, Japan and India. The Netherlands had a 2.9% share in global goods imports in 2023.
- For Iceland, Nigeria and Ivory Coast, the Netherlands was the main export destination in 2023. In 2023, almost 36% of all goods exports from Iceland were destined for the Netherlands.
- Of all goods exported by other 27 EU member states, 4.8% were bound for the Netherlands in 2023. This made the Netherlands the sixth largest buyer of goods exports from the rest of the EU.
- The Netherlands had a higher share in exports from Guyana and Ireland (among others) in 2023 than it did in 2015. Guyana mainly exported a higher value of crude oil to our country. In the case of Ireland, it was mainly medicinal and pharmaceutical products.
| % | |
|---|---|
| Exports | |
| Machinery and equipment | 23 |
| Manufactured goods | 20 |
| Chemical products | 17 |
| Mineral fuels | 15 |
| Food and beverages | 15 |
| Raw materials and natural products | 6 |
| Transport equipment | 4 |
| Imports | |
| Machinery and equipment | 24 |
| Manufactured goods | 23 |
| Minerale brandstoffen | 18 |
| Chemical products | 14 |
| Food and beverages | 11 |
| Transport equipment | 6 |
| Raw materials and natural products | 5 |
Data sources
- The figures relating to the Netherlands are based on data from Statistics Netherlands (CBS) and are based on the concept of border crossing. These are movements of goods where the goods physically cross the Dutch border, even if a transfer of economic ownership is not always involved. Quasi-transit trade is not included in these figures. The most recent figures are from 2024.
- The figures from the international perspective are based on UN Comtrade data. The most recent figures are from 2023.
Outline
This chapter looks at both the composition of the Dutch goods trade and geographical aspects. In sections 3.2 to 3.4 we consider this from the Dutch perspective. In section 3.2, we describe the key developments in the Dutch goods trade and changes in price. Goods exports are discussed in more detail in section 3.3. Which goods does the Netherlands export? Which other countries play an important role when it comes to Dutch goods exports? Section 3.4 provides details on Dutch goods imports. In this chapter, we use the CBS figures based on the concept of border crossing, excluding quasi-transit trade. In sections 3.5 and 3.6, the roles are reversed and we look at the Dutch goods trade from the perspective of the rest of the world. How important is the Netherlands for other countries as a supplier and buyer of goods? We have used data from UN Comtrade (2025). Information about specific goods is also available here.
3.2Key developments in Dutch goods trade in 2024
2024 was a turbulent year. The conflicts in the Middle East continued, as did the war in Ukraine. The number of BRICS members increased further, the growth of the Chinese economy slowed and various countries sought to reduce their dependence on Chinese products (Eigenraam, 2025; Smid, 2025). In November 2024 Donald Trump won the US presidential election, leading to fears of a large-scale trade war, which became a reality in 2025.
Value of goods exports and imports lower than in 2023
Figure 3.2.1 shows the export and import value of the Dutch goods trade. In 2024, Dutch goods exports stood at €666.5 billion. That was 1.8% less than the previous year, when the Netherlands exported €678.8 billion worth of goods. The Netherlands also imported goods worth €585.8 billion. This means that the total value of the Netherlands’ goods imports was down by €20.2 billion – or 3.3% – from 2023.
Alongside the total export and import value of the Dutch goods trade,
Figure 3.2.1 also shows a breakdown of exports into re-exports and domestic exports. In the case of re-exports, the products do come into the ownership of a firm or person based in the Netherlands, but no substantial processing takes place before they are exported again. Per euro of export value, earnings from domestic exports are higher than earnings from re-exports. Chapter 6 of this publication looks at export earnings in more detail.
In 2024, re-exports and domestic exports each accounted for approximately half of the total export value of goods, with domestic exports being slightly higher at 50.3%. The value of re-exports fell by €4.0 billion compared to 2023, while the value of domestic exports was down by €8.2 billion. The bulk of the decrease in export value was therefore linked to domestic exports. This was mainly due to reduced exports of mineral fuels – which also fell in price – and the lower export value of domestically produced transport equipment. At the same time, the export values of food and beverages and of domestic manufactured goods increased, limiting the contraction to some extent.
| Jaar | Stroom | Re-exports | Domestic exports | Imports |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2024* | Imports, 2024* | . | . | 585.79 |
| 2024* | Exports, 2024* | 331.12 | 335.41 | . |
| 2023* | Imports, 2023* | . | . | 606.00 |
| 2023* | Exports, 2023* | 335.00 | 344.00 | . |
| 2019 | Imports, 2019 | . | . | 434.00 |
| 2019 | Exports, 2019 | 233.00 | 262.00 | . |
| 2015 | Imports, 2015 | . | . | 356.00 |
| 2015 | Exports, 2015 | 185.00 | 221.00 | . |
In recent years, consumers have faced large price fluctuations (CBS, 2025). The international trade in goods has also been subject to sharply fluctuating prices: the prices of many goods fell in 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated drop in demand, disagreements between oil-producing countries and economic uncertainty. From late 2020, and especially in 2021 and 2022, the demand for goods picked up again. During this period, manufacturers faced logistical problems and other disruptions to international trade, such as the war in Ukraine and lockdowns in China. In many cases supply was unable to meet demand, and prices rose significantly in 2021 and 2022. In 2023, (trade) prices were lower, and this trend continued in 2024, with import and export prices falling further. Figure 3.2.2 shows the value, price and volume development of total Dutch international trade for the years 2020–2024.
Price and volume changes in international goods trade at Statistics Netherlands
When measuring international trade, Statistics Netherlands (CBS) uses two statistical concepts: change of ownership and border crossing. This chapter is based on the concept of goods physically crossing international borders. The CBS National Accounts are based on the transfer of ownership of goods between a resident and a non-resident. The import and export figures based on the ownership principle are deflated, meaning that they are corrected for price rises. This sheds light on changes in volume in the total Dutch goods trade (CBS, 2024a). However, no such deflation is performed for the import and export figures based on border crossing, which are used for trends at the country and product levels. For this reason, new price and volume figures have been compiled based on the concept of border crossing, which are used in this chapter. This method is still under development, which means that the figures shown here are provisional.
| Jaar | Value | Price | Volume |
|---|---|---|---|
| Imports | . | . | . |
| 2024* | -3.3 | -3.6 | 0.3 |
| 2023* | -9.3 | -4.8 | -4.8 |
| 2022 | 26.8 | 27.8 | -0.7 |
| 2021 | 24.4 | 15.3 | 7.8 |
| 2020 | -7.9 | -5.2 | -2.8 |
| Exports | . | . | . |
| 2024* | -1.8 | -1.7 | -0.1 |
| 2023* | -6.1 | -3.6 | -2.6 |
| 2022 | 22.7 | 26.3 | -2.8 |
| 2021 | 22.1 | 10.4 | 10.6 |
| 2020 | -6.3 | -4.3 | -2.1 |
Volume of international trade stable in 2024 relative to 2023
Import prices were 3.6% lower on average in 2024 than in 2023; the average price of exported goods was down by around 1.7%. The difference between import and export prices was primarily due to the larger share of mineral fuels in imports, the price of which fell relatively sharply. By correcting the change in value of the international trade in goods in 2024 for price changes, we are left with the change in the volume of international trade. This was virtually stable, following two years of contraction: the volume of imports increased by 0.3% compared to 2023, while the volume of exports fell by 0.1%. On average, therefore, the fall in export and import value was primarily caused by lower prices and not by lower trade volumes.
Due to the large price fluctuations of recent years, it is difficult to obtain a good picture of the overall development of international trade. If we compare trade volumes in 2024 with those before the COVID-19 pandemic (2019), we find that imports are roughly 0.7% lower and exports approximately 2.3% higher than five years earlier. In 2024, we therefore exported slightly more than we did in 2019 in terms of volume, and imported slightly less. However, import and export volumes were still slightly lower in 2024 than in 2021 and 2022.
Sharp contraction in volume of mineral fuels and transport equipment…
We can also break down that change in volume by product category. Figure 3.2.3 does this for both exports and imports in 2024. What stands out are the large falls in volume in mineral fuels and transport equipment. The volume of exports and imports of mineral fuels fell by 11% and 10%, respectively, in 2024. The most notable feature of transport equipment exports is a large reduction in volume, of over 14%. Imports of transport equipment fell by nearly 5%. The fall in exports was caused largely by reduced (re-)exports of passenger cars and buses.
… but volume increases in manufactured goods and chemical products
Export volumes of chemical products and manufactured goods both increased by 7%. Import volumes for these product categories increased by 6% and 5%, respectively. The volume growth in the trade in chemical products was mainly due to increased imports and exports of medicines and pharmaceutical products. The import and export volumes of food and beverages increased by 2% and 1%, respectively. Natural products (including oil seeds and raw materials) and machinery and equipment also saw an increase in volume on the import side; the export volume of machinery and equipment remained virtually stable, with a slight fall of 0.2%. In the following sections, the changes in volume of the main export and import products are explained in more detail.
| categorie | Imports | Exports |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical products | 6.1 | 7.1 |
| Manufactured goods | 5.0 | 7.1 |
| Machinery and equipment | 3.8 | -0.2 |
| Mineral fuels | -10.3 | -10.9 |
| Raw materials and natural products |
2.6 | 0.9 |
| Transport equipment | -4.5 | -14.2 |
| Food and beverages | 1.5 | 1.0 |
Europe remains the largest market, but its share contracts slightly
Europe was once again by far the largest market for Dutch goods exports in 2024, with a share of 76.5%. Figure 3.2.4 shows that €510.1 billion of total export value was destined for Europe, which was 3% less than in 2023. The fall in export value was entirely due to mineral fuels. If mineral fuels are excluded, export value to Europe was €3.3 billion higher than in 2023, instead of €15.6 billion lower. Europe’s share as a destination for Dutch goods also fell.
The shares of the Americas and Asia in the export value of Dutch goods increased slightly. With an export value of €72.3 billion, Asia was the second most important destination for Dutch goods in 2024, followed by the Americas with €56.6 billion. Whereas exports of goods to European countries consisted of 56% re-exports and 44% domestic exports, the distribution for the other regions and continents was less balanced, with the proportion of domestic exports standing at around 70%. This difference is partly a result of the European internal market, which makes it relatively easy to sell goods in a large number of EU countries. The Netherlands, and the port of Rotterdam, plays an important role as a hub for the re-export of goods to the European hinterland.
In 2024, 66% of exports went to member states of the European Union, representing a total value of €439.9 billion. In 2024, countries outside the EU became slightly more important as export destinations for Dutch exports compared to 2023, with 34% of export value destined for countries outside the EU – 0.6 percentage points higher than in 2023.
| jaar | Europe | Asia | Americas | Africa | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 314.37 | 45.35 | 29.92 | 13.76 | 2.45 |
| 2019 | 371.73 | 54.40 | 42.16 | 16.39 | 10.26 |
| 2023* | 525.75 | 70.39 | 53.48 | 15.74 | 13.49 |
| 2024* | 510.14 | 72.28 | 56.57 | 13.43 | 14.11 |
Imports down from all regions except Asia in 2024
Figure 3.2.5 shows that of the €585.8 billion of goods imported by the Netherlands in 2024, 57.6% came from European countries. That was €19.7 billion less than the previous year. Partly as a result of this, the share of goods from Europe fell by 1.3 percentage points. As was the case for exports, the trade in mineral fuels played a major role in year-on-year value changes. If we exclude imports of mineral fuels, the import value of goods arriving from Europe in 2024 was only €2.5 billion lower than in 2023.
In contrast to the situation with exports, the EU was slightly more important for goods imports in 2024 than it was in 2023. A total of 47.7% of the import value of goods came from EU countries, up by 0.3 percentage points on 2023.
The trend seen in recent years – with North and South America becoming ever more important as a region of origin compared to the other regions – continued, with a slight growth of 0.3 percentage points. This was because the value of goods imports from the Americas fell less sharply than that from other regions. Asia was the only region from which the Netherlands imported more in 2024 than in 2023. The import value of goods from this region was €5.1 billion higher, with the import share of Asian goods also increasing by 1.6 percentage points. This growth was primarily driven by higher import values for manufactured goods and for machinery and equipment.
| Jaar | Europe | Asia | Americas | Africa | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 228.61 | 75.64 | 39.23 | 11.60 | 1.33 |
| 2019 | 272.97 | 93.97 | 49.61 | 12.14 | 5.67 |
| 2023* | 357.12 | 131.33 | 91.72 | 21.29 | 4.53 |
| 2024* | 337.39 | 136.41 | 90.36 | 18.30 | 3.34 |
3.3Dutch goods exports in detail
Export value of food and beverages rises fastest
In 2024, firms in the Netherlands exported goods worth €666.5 billion, which was €12.3 billion less than in 2023. Figure 3.3.1 shows that this fall was largely caused by the reduction in the export value of mineral fuels. On average, both the price and the volume fell in this product category. The export value of mineral fuels stood at €120.4 billion in 2023; a year later, that figure was 18.7% lower. This largely concerned the export of refined petroleum products. The export value of transport equipment was down by a substantial 15.7% compared to the previous year. This was primarily due to a sharp fall in the volume of exports of passenger cars and buses.
Substantially higher export values were recorded for food and beverages, manufactured goods and chemical products, with the largest increases seen in food and beverages. The export value of this product category was €6.8 billion – or 7.5% – higher than in 2023. That growth is primarily attributable to a doubling in the export value of cocoa (products), itself largely caused by an increase in the price of cocoa of more than 80%. Global cocoa prices rose sharply due to failed harvests in Ivory Coast and Ghana, the source of most of the world’s cocoa (Netherlands Enterprise Agency (RVO), 2024). The Netherlands is Europe’s biggest cocoa exporter, which means that an increase in prices can quickly result in significant changes in export value (Eurostat, 2025).
The value of manufactured goods exported in 2024 was €4.9 billion higher than in 2023. Nearly one-third of this increase is explained by a higher export value of miscellaneous manufactured articles (+€1.4 billion) – in particular, manufactured goods for medical purposes, such as prosthetics. The export value of iron and steel structures (+€0.8 billion) and jewellery, worked gold and silver
(+€0.6 billion) was also significantly higher than in 2023. Finally, the export value of chemical products (+€4.6 billion) rose, primarily due to exports of medicines and pharmaceutical products. This is largely explained by an increased export volume.
Despite the small decline in the export value of machinery and equipment, these goods – with an export value of €155.3 billion – were again the most exported product category.
| Productcategorie | 2024* | 2023* | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Machinery and equipment | 155.35 | 156.19 | 89.06 |
| Manufactured goods | 135.63 | 130.72 | 81.22 |
| Chemical products | 115.03 | 110.38 | 70.85 |
| Mineral fuels | 97.9 | 120.39 | 60.43 |
| Food and beverages | 97.28 | 90.48 | 57.36 |
| Raw materials and natural products |
36.73 | 36.73 | 25.8 |
| Transport equipment | 28.61 | 33.96 | 21.14 |
Neighbouring countries remain the most important destinations for goods from the Netherlands
In 2024, the four most important trading partners for Dutch exports were Germany, Belgium, France and the UK. Export values to those countries fell in 2024, although the fall in export value to Belgium was limited to €14,000. Germany’s share contracted most, with a decrease of 0.7 percentage points compared to 2023. Figure 3.3.2 shows Dutch export values to the fifteen most important destinations for goods exports. The common denominator in the fall in export values to the top 4 destinations is the sharply reduced export value for mineral fuels. If these goods are excluded, the picture changes, with exports to Germany and Belgium increasing and the fall in export values to France and the UK limited to 1% and 3%, respectively (instead of 5% and 4% when mineral fuels are included).
The US was the fifth most important export destination in 2024. With an increase in export value of €4.4 billion compared with 2023, the US was also the destination that saw the largest growth. This increase was largely caused by a rise in exports of chemical products from the Netherlands to the US, for a total value of €9.2 billion. In 2023, that figure was €6.4 billion. Exports of medicinal and pharmaceutical products accounted for €1.8 billion of the €2.8 billion growth in exports of chemical products to the US. Alongside the US, export values to China (+€2.6 billion) and Poland (+€1.1 billion) also rose sharply. As a result of these developments, China took eighth position from Poland. In China’s case, the increase was primarily due to a rise in the export value of machinery and equipment, while the growth in exports to Poland was equally distributed between manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, and food and beverages.
| Land | 2024* | 2023* | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 147.2 | 154.67 | 93.12 |
| Belgium | 79.19 | 79.19 | 46.79 |
| France | 52.16 | 54.79 | 31.99 |
| UK | 41.54 | 43.06 | 36.48 |
| US | 38.22 | 33.77 | 17.47 |
| Italy | 27.2 | 27.85 | 16.3 |
| Spain | 22.47 | 21.69 | 11.54 |
| China | 20.57 | 17.94 | 8.18 |
| Poland | 20.15 | 19.08 | 9.33 |
| Sweden | 13.43 | 14.7 | 7.38 |
| South Korea | 9.34 | 9.49 | 4.07 |
| Denmark | 8.9 | 8.67 | 5.48 |
| Czechia | 8.47 | 8.66 | 5.64 |
| Ireland | 8.43 | 8.04 | 3.24 |
| Switzerland | 8.25 | 8.93 | 5.27 |
The top 5 export markets still receive the most mineral fuels…
In 2024, 53.8% of exports went to our five most important export markets: Germany, Belgium, France, the UK and the US. This was also the case in the previous year. As in 2023, the concentration of exports bound for the top 5 destinations was greatest in mineral fuels: 68.9% of the export value of mineral fuels went to these countries. Conversely, the concentration was lowest for machinery and equipment and transport equipment, with shares of 43.2% and 44.1%, respectively.
… but much less machinery and equipment was shipped to Taiwan
Outside the top 5 destinations, the most machinery and equipment was exported to China
(€12.4 billion), South Korea (€6.3 billion) and Spain (€5.2 billion). In 2024, Taiwan was our eleventh most important export destination for machinery and equipment, whereas in 2022 it ranked fourth. The most important destinations for transport equipment were Poland (€1.4 billion), the Cayman Islands and Spain (both €0.9 billion).
| categorie | Germany | Belgium | France | UK | US | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chemical products | 22.88 | 14.27 | 9.64 | 6.37 | 9.22 | 52.65 |
| Manufactured goods | 30.66 | 14.18 | 13.12 | 9.23 | 6.82 | 61.62 |
| Raw materials and natural products |
9.73 | 4.46 | 2.34 | 2.24 | 1.15 | 16.80 |
| Machinery and equipment | 24.69 | 9.60 | 10.99 | 9.17 | 12.63 | 88.26 |
| Mineral fuels | 30.71 | 21.16 | 5.63 | 5.37 | 4.54 | 30.47 |
| Transport equipment | 4.67 | 2.69 | 2.00 | 1.94 | 1.33 | 15.99 |
| Food and beverages | 23.87 | 12.82 | 8.44 | 7.21 | 2.52 | 42.42 |
Ratio of domestic exports to re-exports remains virtually unchanged
With major international transport nodes such as the port of Rotterdam and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, the Netherlands plays a key role in the re-export of goods. There are sizeable differences between product categories when it comes to the relative shares of re-exportsnoot1 and domestic exports; see Figure 3.3.4. For instance, manufactured goods are more likely to be re-exported: in 2024 only 37.6% of export value in this product category came from domestic exports. Re-exports of manufactured goods included medical instruments and prosthetics, for example. By contrast, two-thirds of exports of raw materials and natural products were domestic exports (for example goods produced in the Netherlands).
Due to the sharp contraction in the export value of mineral fuels, both re-exports and domestic exports fell in 2024. The reprocessing of imported crude oil into various different products takes place on a large scale in and around the port of Rotterdam (De Correspondent, 2024) and accounts for the majority of domestic exports of mineral fuels. Exports in this product category fell by more than re-exports, with a reduction of €12.9 billion compared to 2023, whereas the fall in re-exports was approximately three-quarters of that figure. Transport equipment was the other product category for which both types of exports fell. Machinery and equipment was the only product category for which only re-exports fell (–€1.7 billion), while domestic exports grew (+€0.9 billion).
| categorie | Re-exports | Domestic exports |
|---|---|---|
| Machinery and equipment | 89.65 | 65.69 |
| Manufactured goods | 84.63 | 51.00 |
| Chemical products | 58.71 | 56.32 |
| Mineral fuels | 41.54 | 56.35 |
| Food and beverages | 36.30 | 60.98 |
| Raw materials and natural products |
12.27 | 24.46 |
| Transport equipment | 8.01 | 20.60 |
Domestic exports made up 88% of exports to South Korea by value
Figure 3.3.5 shows the relationship between domestic exports and re-exports to the fifteen most important destinations for Dutch exports. For example, re-exports accounted for 60% of export value to Germany. Exports to Belgium and France were also characterised by a relatively large share of re-exports.
By contrast, countries outside the EU, such as the UK, the US and China, had relatively high shares of domestic exports, at 62%, 70% and 84%, respectively. Thanks to the European internal market, goods, services, people and capital are able to circulate almost as easily within the EU as within an individual country. In addition to EU member states, this includes countries which are part of the European Economic Area (EEA) – Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein – and to an extent Switzerland, with which the EU has bilateral agreements (European Council, 2023). The trend in exports to the UK seen in recent years, with an increasing proportion of domestic exports compared to goods re-exported from the Netherlands (see also Creemers et al., 2022; Ramaekers & Houben-van Herten, 2024), continued in 2024. The UK left the EU on 31 January 2020. This was followed by a transition period, during which it continued to comply with European trade rules. One year later, it also left the internal market. This means that since 1 January 2021, the UK has been a ‘third country’ – a country outside the EU – for the purposes of trade with the Netherlands. Trade between the EU and the UK – excluding Northern Ireland – is now subject to customs rules. In 2020, the last year in which the UK was part of the EEA, the share of re-exports was 49%. By 2024, that share had fallen by 11 percentage points.
The high share of domestic exports to South Korea (88%) and China (84%) is explained by exports of Dutch machinery and equipment. The share of domestic exports to Sweden fell by 5 percentage points in 2024. Although re-exports to Sweden were down €0.1 billion, domestic exports fell more sharply, by €1.2 billion. This was due in particular to reduced exports of mineral fuels. The fall in this product category also extended to other European countries, but was more visible in Sweden’s case due to the relatively large share of mineral fuels in exports to that country.
| Land | Domestic exports | Re-exports |
|---|---|---|
| Germany | 58.79 | 88.41 |
| Belgium | 35.83 | 43.36 |
| France | 19.57 | 32.59 |
| UK | 25.79 | 15.75 |
| US | 26.85 | 11.36 |
| Italy | 10.30 | 16.90 |
| Spain | 8.96 | 13.51 |
| China | 17.32 | 3.25 |
| Poland | 7.94 | 12.21 |
| Sweden | 5.26 | 8.18 |
| South Korea | 8.22 | 1.13 |
| Denmark | 3.84 | 5.06 |
| Czechia | 2.80 | 5.67 |
| Ireland | 3.92 | 4.52 |
| Switzerland | 4.35 | 3.90 |
| 1) Onboard provisioning is not included here. Onboard provisions include consumables and consumer | ||
| goods supplied to ships and aircraft for the purpose of the voyage. Due to the international nature of this practice, the country of destination cannot be determined. | ||
Export value of refined petroleum products down by 16%
Figure 3.3.6 shows the Netherlands’ top 15 product groups for goods exports by value in 2024, broken down into domestic exports and re-exports. As in 2023, refined petroleum products had the highest export value, of which 78% consisted of domestic exports. Examples include petrol and diesel fuel. The export value of refined petroleum products fell by €10.4 billion compared to 2023.
Of the Netherlands’ fifteen most important product groups for goods exports, the share of domestic exports was even higher for specialised machinery and equipment than for refined petroleum products: 94% of export value came from exports that originated from the Netherlands. On the other hand, crude oil was the product with the highest share of re-exports in the top 15 product groups, with 99% of export value coming from re-exports. Of the fifteen most exported product goods in 2024, only fruits and nuts and measuring and control instruments did not feature in the 2023 list, replacing natural gas and petroleum residues. This was not necessarily a reflection of the value of those product groups: in 2024 the figures on natural gas and petroleum residues were confidential.
| SITC3 | Domestic exports | Re-exports |
|---|---|---|
| Refined petroleum products | 44.05 | 12.19 |
| Specialised machinery and equipment | 25.91 | 1.63 |
| (Mobile) telephones, modems, routers | 2.77 | 22.42 |
| Medicines | 5.10 | 14.93 |
| Medicinal and pharmaceutical products | 5.16 | 11.75 |
| Crude oil | 0.10 | 15.65 |
| Computers, laptops, tablets | 3.45 | 11.81 |
| Flowers and plants | 12.18 | 2.55 |
| Medical instruments and devices | 2.58 | 11.25 |
| Other chemical products | 5.60 | 7.62 |
| Other manufactured goods | 2.15 | 10.15 |
| Processed foods | 6.35 | 2.70 |
| Vegetables | 6.30 | 2.63 |
| Fruits and nuts | 1.36 | 7.05 |
| Measuring and control instruments | 3.08 | 4.88 |
Increase in export value of medicines and pharmaceutical products largely due to higher export volume
Figure 3.3.7 shows the change in value of the top 15 product groups for goods exports in 2024 compared to 2023. It also shows changes in price and volume with respect to the previous year, so that we can see what is driving the change in value. The general picture for the Netherlands’ top 15 export product groups is that changes in volume played a greater role than changes in price. Following significant price changes in recent years, prices in 2024 were relatively stable compared to the previous year. Consequently, shifts in trade volumes played a more important role in 2024.
The export value of refined petroleum products fell sharply as a result of declines in both price and volume. The growth in exports of specialised machinery and equipment was due to a slight price increase. In the product group telephones, modems and routers, the export value was slightly higher than it was in 2023. The prices of these goods fell slightly on average, but export volumes increased somewhat. The import and export values of the fourth and fifth most exported product groups – medicines and pharmaceutical products – were significantly higher in 2024 than they were in 2023. The former grew by 19.5%, and the latter by 13.8%, resulting in a combined growth of €5.3 billion. In both cases, that growth in value was the result of a higher export volume; in the case of medicines, prices also increased.
| SITC3 | Value | Price | Volume |
|---|---|---|---|
| Refined petroleum products | -15.6 | -6.5 | -9.7 |
| Specialist machinery and equipment | 7.0 | 10.3 | -3.1 |
| (Mobile) telephones, modems, routers | 0.3 | -1.6 | 1.9 |
| Medicines | 19.5 | 6.1 | 12.6 |
| Medicinal and pharmaceutical products | 13.8 | -1.3 | 15.2 |
| Crude oil | 0.0 | 1.4 | -1.4 |
| Computers, laptops, tablets | 2.6 | -7.3 | 10.7 |
| Flowers and plants | 5.0 | 2.2 | 2.8 |
| Medical instruments and devices | -1.1 | -1.7 | 0.6 |
| Other chemical products | -14.1 | -5.9 | -8.8 |
| Other manufactured goods | 13.2 | -3.2 | 16.9 |
| Processed foods | 5.5 | -1.8 | 7.4 |
| Vegetables | 2.7 | -2.0 | 4.8 |
| Fruits and nuts | 10.8 | 3.6 | 7.0 |
| Measuring and control instruments | 4.2 | -0.9 | 5.1 |
3.4Dutch goods imports in detail
Changes to imports due to cheaper mineral fuels and more expensive cocoa
Goods worth €585.8 billion were imported in 2024, €20.2 billion less than the previous year. Figure 3.4.1 shows the value of Dutch goods imports, broken down by product category. As in 2023, machinery and equipment and manufactured goods were the most imported product categories. One interesting point is that the import value of mineral fuels was €29.0 billion less than in 2023, a figure that was already down substantially on 2022. As was the case with exports of mineral fuels, this reduction in value was caused by falls in both price and volume.
As with exports, the food and beverages product category saw import value grow the fastest in absolute terms. Here, too, the growth was mainly driven by higher cocoa prices, which explain 65% of the increase. However, unlike for exports, the commodity was not in the form of cocoa products but cocoa beans, which are then processed in the Netherlands.
| Goederen | 2024* | 2023* | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Machinery and equipment | 137.83 | 136.90 | 83.06 |
| Manufactured goods | 135.59 | 132.74 | 81.28 |
| Mineral fuels | 103.50 | 132.5 | 65.34 |
| Chemical products | 80.97 | 78.79 | 47.22 |
| Food and beverages | 63.59 | 59.31 | 38.29 |
| Transport equipment | 36.70 | 38.21 | 22.85 |
| Raw materials and natural products |
27.61 | 27.54 | 18.37 |
Value of goods imports from Ireland rises by €2.1 billion
Figure 3.4.2 shows the import value of goods broken down by trading partner. In 2024, Germany was again the most important trading partner for Dutch imports, with the import value of goods arriving from that country totalling €97.6 billion. The six countries from which the Netherlands imported the most remained unchanged compared to 2023. Despite the fact that the import value of goods from Italy fell by €0.4 billion, it nevertheless became a slightly more important trading partner. Due to a €5.8 billion drop in the value of goods imported from Norway, Italy was the seventh-largest trading partner for imports in 2024, moving up from eighth place. The sharp decline in imports from Norway was caused by a €5.9 billion reduction in imports of mineral fuels. Two-thirds of that is explained by lower prices, but the import volume also fell. Ireland and Poland also exchanged places. Whereas the import value of goods imported from Poland fell very slightly (–€0.1 billion), the import value of goods from Ireland increased by 18%. This was mainly due to a higher import value for medicines and pharmaceutical products (+€1.3 billion) and medical instruments and devices (+€0.8 billion).
The import value of goods imported from Thailand rose even faster than the import value of goods from Ireland. In 2024, the Netherlands imported €6.2 billion worth of goods from Thailand – an increase of 66%. This made Thailand the 20th most important supplier of goods to the Netherlands (up from 34th position in 2023). Machinery and equipment accounted for 72.5% of those imports. The largest increase was due to the higher import value of processors. The value of goods imports from the Asian countries Kazakhstan, India and China also grew by more than €1 billion in 2024 compared to the previous year.
Japan and Czechia dropped out of the top 15 trading partners in terms of goods imports in 2024, their places being taken by Vietnam and Taiwan.
| Land | 2024* | 2023* | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 97.64 | 102.32 | 63.42 |
| US | 59.66 | 64 | 27.14 |
| Belgium | 57.22 | 58.72 | 37.33 |
| China | 51.31 | 50.26 | 29.1 |
| UK | 27.23 | 31.21 | 20.56 |
| France | 20.58 | 21.33 | 15.85 |
| Italy | 14.86 | 15.21 | 8.77 |
| Norway | 14.16 | 19.94 | 11.85 |
| Ireland | 13.99 | 11.87 | 4.68 |
| Poland | 13.59 | 13.66 | 7.15 |
| Spain | 10.73 | 11.21 | 6.87 |
| Sweden | 9.54 | 9.17 | 6.26 |
| Brazil | 8.59 | 8.29 | 3.69 |
| Vietnam | 8.05 | 7.7 | 4.07 |
| Taiwan | 7.6 | 7.36 | 2.53 |
In two years, Kazakhstan has climbed 46 places in the ranking of the most important trading partners for Dutch imports
With an import value of €4.5 billion in 2024, Kazakhstan ranked 26th among the most important suppliers of goods to the Netherlands. In 2022, this Central Asian country had been our 72nd most important trading partner. Crude oil made up a full 97% of Dutch import value from Kazakhstan in 2024, meaning that 10% of the crude oil imported by the Netherlands in 2024 came from there. Since December 2022, imports of crude oil from Russia have been banned (Rijksoverheid, 2022). Since then, part of the demand for crude oil has been met by Kazakhstan – an effect that is visible in Figure 3.4.3.
In 2022, 17% of Dutch crude oil imports, with an import value of €9.3 billion – the largest share of any country – were still sourced from Russia. The value of crude oil imported from the US was also relatively high; in 2022, the import value of crude oil from the US was €8.0 billion. In 2024, the US was the Netherlands’ largest supplier of crude oil, with a share of 25%. With an import value of €4.4 billion, Kazakhstan was the third most important country of origin for crude oil in 2024, just behind Norway.
| Jaar | Maand | Import value |
|---|---|---|
| 2022 | January, 2022 | 42.6 |
| 2022 | February, 2022 | 73.8 |
| 2022 | March, 2022 | 0.0 |
| 2022 | April, 2022 | 72.9 |
| 2022 | May, 2022 | 83.1 |
| 2022 | June, 2022 | 0.0 |
| 2022 | July, 2022 | 0.7 |
| 2022 | August, 2022 | 76.7 |
| 2022 | September, 2022 | 0.0 |
| 2022 | October, 2022 | 1.4 |
| 2022 | November, 2022 | 2.8 |
| 2022 | December, 2022 | 383.6 |
| 2023* | January, 2023* | 325.8 |
| 2023* | February, 2023* | 282.2 |
| 2023* | March, 2023* | 401.5 |
| 2023* | April, 2023* | 296.2 |
| 2023* | May, 2023* | 225.7 |
| 2023* | June, 2023* | 282.0 |
| 2023* | July, 2023* | 188.9 |
| 2023* | August, 2023* | 191.9 |
| 2023* | September, 2023* | 74.4 |
| 2023* | October, 2023* | 326.1 |
| 2023* | November, 2023* | 216.0 |
| 2023* | December, 2023* | 249.5 |
| 2024* | January, 2024* | 115.9 |
| 2024* | February, 2024* | 496.9 |
| 2024* | March, 2024* | 406.6 |
| 2024* | April, 2024* | 467.0 |
| 2024* | May, 2024* | 559.7 |
| 2024* | June, 2024* | 362.0 |
| 2024* | July, 2024* | 329.8 |
| 2024* | August, 2024* | 399.4 |
| 2024* | September, 2024* | 517.5 |
| 2024* | October, 2024* | 337.5 |
| 2024* | November, 2024* | 197.5 |
| 2024* | December, 2024* | 248.2 |
Half of all import value from top 5 trading partners
Of the €585.8 billion in imports in 2024, €293.1 billion originated from the Netherlands’ top 5 import partners. The composition of this top 5 – Germany, the US, Belgium, China and the UK – remained unchanged from 2023. These trading partners accounted for exactly 50% of total Dutch import value in 2024. This means that the concentration of imports among the top 5 trading partners grew by 0.6 percentage points compared to 2023.
Top 5 import partners supply the most chemical products
Imports of chemical products (58.0%), transport equipment (55.7%) and machinery and equipment (54.2%) were most concentrated among the top 5 import partners (see Figure 3.4.4). On the other hand, relatively large volumes of raw materials and natural products, food and beverages, and mineral fuels were imported from other countries. Imports of raw materials and natural products were more diversified in terms of their countries of origin, with Sweden, Brazil, Malaysia and France – each with a 4% share – being the most important countries outside the top 5. After Germany and Belgium, France was the Netherlands’ main trading partner for imports of food and beverages. In 2024, the Netherlands imported €0.5 billion worth of French alcoholic beverages, over four-fifths of which was (sparkling) wine. With regard to imports of mineral fuels, Norway was the most important trading partner other than the US.
| Categorie | Germany | US | Belgium | China | UK | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chemical products | 17.31 | 9.60 | 11.55 | 4.29 | 4.12 | 34.10 |
| Manufactured goods | 24.48 | 11.90 | 11.81 | 17.03 | 5.18 | 65.19 |
| Raw materials and natural products |
4.88 | 1.55 | 3.20 | 0.63 | 0.56 | 16.79 |
| Machinery and equipment | 22.08 | 14.04 | 5.52 | 26.55 | 6.44 | 63.19 |
| Mineral fuels | 6.17 | 19.35 | 10.13 | 0.44 | 8.37 | 59.03 |
| Transport equipment | 10.76 | 1.82 | 5.54 | 1.15 | 1.12 | 16.30 |
| Food and beverages | 11.96 | 1.39 | 9.46 | 1.23 | 1.42 | 38.14 |
Crude oil the most imported product group once again, but import value lower
In 2024, as in 2023, crude oil was the most imported product group among firms in the Netherlands. The import value of crude oil, and of the fourteen other most important product goods, is shown in Figure 3.4.5. Despite the fact that crude oil remained the most important product group for imports, its import value contracted by €5.4 billion in 2024 compared to the previous year. Refined petroleum products and telephones, modems and routers completed the top 3 of most important import product goods. One notable change is that the second most important product good of 2023 – natural gas – fell to fifth place in 2024. The import value of natural gas was €21.9 billion lower than in 2023, continuing the downward trend following the historically high price levels seen in 2022.
Of the top 15 product goods, imports of computers, laptops and tablets grew the fastest; in 2024, the value of these imports was €5.0 billion higher than the previous year. Of that, over two-thirds was due to an increase in imports of other automatic data processing machines, a product group that includes desktop computers and separate processors for instance, which were responsible for the majority of the increase in this product group. Just under 30% of the increase was the result of a higher import value for laptops. There was also striking growth of €2.6 billion in the import value of pharmaceutical products. The second largest increase was seen in a product group outside the fifteen most important product groups: the import value of cocoa was 86.9% higher in 2024 than it was in 2023, an increase of €2.8 billion. This was primarily the result of increased cocoa prices (RVO, 2024).
Finally, semiconductors – products that were still one of the fifteen most important product groups last year – are no longer in the top 15; their import value fell by €2.2 billion. They were replaced by fruits and nuts.
| Goederengroep | 2024* | 2023* |
|---|---|---|
| Crude oil | 45.29 | 50.68 |
| Refined petroleum products | 29.32 | 29.71 |
| (Mobile) telephones, modems, routers | 27.4 | 27.24 |
| Computers, laptops, tablets | 19.29 | 14.33 |
| Natural gas | 17.26 | 39.11 |
| Medicinal and pharmaceutical products | 14.79 | 12.14 |
| Passenger cars | 13.83 | 13.27 |
| Medical instruments and devices | 13.26 | 11.98 |
| Medicines | 11.44 | 11.35 |
| Other manufactured goods | 10.03 | 9.03 |
| Other chemical products | 9.66 | 10.65 |
| Specialised machinery and equipment | 9.54 | 8.65 |
| Fruits and nuts | 7.89 | 7.38 |
| Electrical machinery, devices and appliances |
7.76 | 7.85 |
| Car parts | 7.16 | 8.25 |
Higher import value of pharmaceutical products due to increased volume
Figure 3.4.6 again shows the change in value of the most important product groups in Dutch imports in 2024 compared to the previous year, along with the associated price and volume changes. For most product groups, the change in price was moderate, while the change in volume played a more decisive role in changes in import value.
We note that the fall in imports of crude oil was largely explained by a fall in import volume, and partly by lower prices. By contrast, imported refined petroleum products actually saw an average volume increase coupled with a price reduction, as did (mobile) telephones, modems and routers. The large rise in the import value of computers, laptops and tablets is explained primarily by a substantial increase in volume, but prices also rose. There were steep falls in both price and volume for imports of natural gas. Although prices were already significantly lower in 2023 than the previous year, the price of natural gas fell even further in 2024. Finally, the large value increase in imports of pharmaceutical products may be explained by a large rise in import volume.
| goederencategorie | Value | Price | Volume |
|---|---|---|---|
| Crude oil | -10.6 | -3.3 | -7.6 |
| Refined petroleum products | -1.3 | -5.2 | 4.1 |
| (Mobile) telephones, modems, routers | 0.6 | -4.3 | 5.1 |
| Computers, laptops, tablets | 34.6 | 8.2 | 24.4 |
| Natural gas | -55.9 | -45.6 | -18.9 |
| Medicinal and pharmaceutical products | 21.8 | 0.8 | 20.8 |
| Passenger cars | 4.2 | 0.9 | 3.2 |
| Medical instruments and devices | 10.7 | 8.4 | 2.1 |
| Medicines | 0.8 | -1.2 | 2.0 |
| Other manufactured goods | 11.1 | 0.6 | 10.5 |
| Other chemical products | -9.3 | -7.1 | -2.4 |
| Specialised machinery and equipment | 10.4 | -2.7 | 13.5 |
| Fruits and nuts | 7.0 | 2.5 | 4.3 |
| Electrical machinery, devices and appliances |
-1.1 | -9.6 | 9.4 |
| Car parts | -13.2 | -1.4 | -12.0 |
3.5The importance of the Netherlands as a supplier of goods to other countries
In this section, we will look at the Netherlands’ share in the goods imports of other countries. In addition to the importance of the Netherlands’ role and its share of imports to other countries, we also look at its position in the list of key partners for other economies.
UN Comtrade data
In previous editions of Dutch Trade in Facts and Figures, we used the CHELEM International Trade database of the French Centre d’études prospectives et d’informations internationales (CEPII) to put the Dutch goods trade in an international perspective. At the time of writing, no new edition of that dataset is available. In order to provide data for a more recent year, in this edition we base the results in sections 3.5 and 3.6 on the data from UN Comtrade (2025). This database contains the most recent bilateral trade data (up to 2023) for all reporting partner countries. It also contains detailed data on goods. Quasi-transit trade is not included in the Dutch trade figures. We do not know whether or not quasi-transit trade is included in the UN Comtrade figures for other countries.
Netherlands overtakes Japan as the world’s 4th largest goods exporter
Since 2010, the Netherlands has consistently ranked among the world’s ten largest goods exporters. Figure 3.5.1 shows that the Netherlands was responsible for 3.3% of the value of global goods exports in 2023. This represents an increase on 2015, when the Netherlands had a 2.9% share of global goods exports. In 2023, the Netherlands was the world’s fourth-largest goods exporter, behind China, the US and Germany. Since 2015, our country has left economies such as Japan, South Korea and France behind. The Japanese economy grew rapidly between the end of the Second World War and the 1980s. However, over the past thirty years, growth in Japan has been far more limited. This is partly due to increased population ageing and sustained price rises (Lecluyse, 2024).
China, the US and Germany remained the countries with the highest export value in 2023. China’s export share has risen sharply since it joined the World Trade Organization in 2001. Before that, the US and Germany had ranked consistently in first and second place for global goods exports.
| Jaar | China | US | Germany | Netherlands | Japan |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1992 | 3.5 | 18.2 | 17.5 | 5.7 | 13.8 |
| 1993 | 3.2 | 16.4 | 13.4 | 4.6 | 12.7 |
| 1994 | 3.2 | 13.6 | 11.4 | 3.9 | 10.5 |
| 1995 | 3.2 | 12.4 | 11.2 | 3.8 | 9.5 |
| 1996 | 3.0 | 12.5 | 10.5 | 3.5 | 8.2 |
| 1997 | 3.5 | 13.2 | 9.8 | 3.5 | 8.1 |
| 1998 | 3.5 | 12.9 | 10.3 | 3.2 | 7.4 |
| 1999 | 3.6 | 12.7 | 9.9 | 3.1 | 7.6 |
| 2000 | 4.0 | 12.4 | 8.7 | 3.4 | 7.6 |
| 2001 | 4.4 | 12.0 | 9.4 | 3.6 | 6.6 |
| 2002 | 5.1 | 10.9 | 9.7 | 3.4 | 6.5 |
| 2003 | 5.9 | 9.7 | 10.0 | 3.5 | 6.3 |
| 2004 | 6.6 | 9.0 | 10.1 | 3.5 | 6.3 |
| 2005 | 7.5 | 8.8 | 9.6 | 3.4 | 5.8 |
| 2006 | 8.1 | 8.7 | 9.4 | 3.4 | 5.4 |
| 2007 | 9.0 | 8.5 | 9.8 | 3.5 | 5.2 |
| 2008 | 9.1 | 8.3 | 9.3 | 3.5 | 5.0 |
| 2009 | 9.8 | 8.6 | 9.2 | 3.5 | 4.7 |
| 2010 | 10.6 | 8.6 | 8.5 | 3.3 | 5.2 |
| 2011 | 10.6 | 8.3 | 8.3 | 3.2 | 4.6 |
| 2012 | 11.5 | 8.7 | 7.9 | 3.1 | 4.5 |
| 2013 | 11.9 | 8.5 | 7.8 | 3.1 | 3.9 |
| 2014 | 12.7 | 8.8 | 8.1 | 3.1 | 3.7 |
| 2015 | 14.1 | 9.3 | 8.2 | 2.9 | 3.9 |
| 2016 | 13.4 | 9.2 | 8.5 | 3.0 | 4.1 |
| 2017 | 13.1 | 9.0 | 8.3 | 3.1 | 4.0 |
| 2018 | 13.1 | 8.8 | 8.2 | 3.1 | 3.9 |
| 2019 | 13.5 | 8.9 | 8.1 | 3.1 | 3.8 |
| 2020 | 15.1 | 8.3 | 8.1 | 3.2 | 3.7 |
| 2021 | 15.3 | 8.1 | 7.5 | 3.2 | 3.5 |
| 2022 | 15.3 | 8.8 | 7.2 | 3.3 | 3.2 |
| 2023 | 15.0 | 9.0 | 7.5 | 3.3 | 3.2 |
| Source: UN Comtrade (2025) | |||||
Over a fifth of Belgian goods imports originate from the Netherlands
In 2023, the Netherlands was among the eight most important suppliers of goods in terms of value to all the trading partners in Figure 3.5.2. With a share of 21.2%, our country was the main supplier of goods to Belgium in 2023. Mineral fuels, including crude oil and refined petroleum products, dominated Belgium’s imports from the Netherlands. Also see CBS (2024b) for more details on the Belgian economy and the trade relationship between the Netherlands and Belgium.
If we look at the entire EU27, the Netherlands was the third most important supplier of goods. Germany and China were the most important countries of origin for EU27 imports. Of all the goods imported by the EU27 in 2023, some 6.4% came from the Netherlands.
Netherlands main country of origin for Ghanaian imports of refined petroleum products
Ghana imported nearly 10% of its goods from the Netherlands in 2023. This made the Netherlands the second most important supplier of goods to Ghana in 2023, after China. In 2015, the Netherlands had only been in 20th place. In particular, the value of Ghanaian imports of refined petroleum products from the Netherlands was higher in 2023 compared to 2015. The Netherlands also became an (even) more important import partner for France. In 2015, our country ranked sixth, but by 2023 it had climbed to third place. This was largely due to a higher import value for (mobile) telephones, modems and routers, and medicaments and pharmaceutical products. Our country was the most important supplier to firms in France for both these product groups in 2023.
Over 10% of Swedish goods imports came from the Netherlands in 2023. This meant that the Netherlands was Sweden’s second most important trading partner after Germany; in 2015, the Netherlands’ share was 8.0%. In particular, Sweden obtained a higher value of (mobile) telephones, modems and routers, computers, laptops and tablets, and refined petroleum products from the Netherlands in 2023 compared to 2015.
| Partner | 2023 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|
| Belgium | 21.2 | 21.4 |
| Sweden | 10.9 | 8.0 |
| Ghana | 9.6 | 1.5 |
| Denmark | 8.9 | 8.0 |
| France | 8.8 | 4.2 |
| Germany | 7.2 | 8.3 |
| Italy | 6.2 | 5.6 |
| Source: UN Comtrade (2025) | ||
| 1)Only trading partners with a share of trade with the Netherlands of more than 6% and which imported goods from the Netherlands worth more than US$1 billion in 2023. | ||
Netherlands declines in importance as supplier of pharmaceutical products to Germany
The total value of German imports from the Netherlands increased, but the value of imports from other countries rose faster. German imports from China and Poland in particular rose sharply, especially for electrical machinery, devices and appliances. The Netherlands was the second most important supplier of goods to Germany in 2023, after China. Germany sourced 7.2% of all its goods imports from the Netherlands in 2023, which is 1.1 percentage points less than in 2015. Germany obtained a lower value of medicinal and pharmaceutical products from the Netherlands. In 2015, the Netherlands had been the primary supplier of these goods, while in 2023 it fell back to third place, behind the US and Switzerland.
Table 3.5.3 only lists trading partners that imported at least US$1 billion worth of goods from the Netherlands in 2023, but for which the Dutch share was less than 6%. This table is therefore supplementary to the trading partners shown in Figure 3.5.2.
| 2010 | 2015 | 2022 | 2023 | Ranking of the Netherlands in 2023 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| % | |||||
| Greece | 5.2 | 5.5 | 4.7 | 5.9 | 5 |
| Lithuania | 4.4 | 5.1 | 4.5 | 5.4 | 5 |
| Portugal | 5.2 | 5.1 | 5.0 | 5.3 | 4 |
| Hungary | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.9 | 5.0 | 8 |
| Nigeria | 0.8 | 6.2 | 10.4 | 5.0 | 6 |
| Norway | 3.7 | 3.6 | 4.2 | 4.8 | 4 |
| Finland | 5.4 | 5.3 | 4.6 | 4.7 | 6 |
| Luxembourg | 4.1 | 3.5 | 5.3 | 4.7 | 4 |
| Spain | 4.4 | 4.2 | 4.1 | 4.5 | 6 |
| Latvia | 4.0 | 3.7 | 4.0 | 4.4 | 6 |
| Poland | 3.7 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 4.1 | 5 |
| Ireland | 4.6 | 3.8 | 3.4 | 4.0 | 7 |
| Croatia | 2.1 | 3.8 | 3.3 | 4.0 | 7 |
| UK | 6.7 | 7.5 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 7 |
| Switzerland | 4.5 | 2.1 | 1.6 | 1.8 | 14 |
| Ukraine | 1.4 | 1.2 | 2.0 | 1.6 | 17 |
| South Africa | 1.7 | 1.5 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 15 |
| Slovakia | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 15 |
| South Korea | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 17 |
| Egypt | 1.6 | 1.7 | 1.5 | 1.3 | 20 |
| US | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 18 |
| Turkey | 1.7 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 15 |
| Brazil | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 19 |
| Australia | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 21 |
| Singapore | 1.7 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 22 |
| China | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 33 |
| Canada | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 18 |
| Malaysia | 0.6 | 1.3 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 24 |
| UAE | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 41 |
| Japan | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 31 |
| Thailand | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 30 |
Source:UN Comtrade (2025)
1)Only trading partners with a Dutch share of <6% and total goods imports from the Netherlands worth ≥1 billion US dollars in 2023.
The Netherlands increased its share in Norway’s goods imports…
The Netherlands occupied a relatively significant position as a goods supplier to Norway, with a share of 4.8%. In 2015, the Dutch share in Norway’s goods imports was lower by 1.1 percentage points. In 2023, the Netherlands overtook the US, Denmark and South Korea to become the fifth most important goods supplier for firms in Norway. The Netherlands increased its share in Norway’s imports of trucks and chemical products. The Dutch share in Luxembourg’s imports also grew: from 3.5% in 2015 to 4.7% in 2023. In particular, the country obtained a greater proportion of its aluminium imports from the Netherlands.
… but lost ground in Malaysian and Nigerian goods imports
In 2015, 1.3% of Malaysian imports came from the Netherlands. By 2023, that share had fallen to 0.4%. Most notably, firms in Malaysia imported a lower value of petroleum residues and nickel from the Netherlands compared to 2015. The Netherlands was the most important supplier of petroleum residues to Malaysia in 2015, ranking 21st in 2023. The Netherlands also accounted for a slightly smaller share in Nigerian imports in 2023 than in 2015. We see that firms in Nigeria were relatively more likely to import refined petroleum products from other countries, such as India, Norway and Russia. Partly as a result of this, the Dutch share in Nigerian imports fell from 6.2% to 5.0%.
Brexit contributes to lower share in British imports
Figure 3.5.4 shows the countries whose share in British goods imports have risen and fallen in recent years. These are the trading partners whose share in British goods imports in 2023 rose or fell by the most compared to 2015. Along with fellow EU member states Germany, Belgium and France, the Netherlands is among the five goods suppliers with the largest share in UK goods imports. In 2015, firms in the UK obtained around 7.5% of their import value from our country. By 2023, that share had fallen to 3.4%. Brexit has played a role in this change. Since Brexit, there have been far-reaching changes in trade with the UK: the goods trade with the UK has become more expensive and complex, because additional customs procedures are in place when crossing the border (Van Teutem, 2024). Russia has also declined in importance as a supplier of goods to the UK, but we see a large increase for Kazakhstan. This may be attributable to the sanctions imposed following the Russian invasion of Ukraine (GOV.UK, 2025; NOS Nieuws, 2024; Wilson, 2025). UK imports of Russian crude oil dried up completely in 2023. At the same time, we see imports of crude oil from other countries such as Kazakhstan in 2023, whereas there were none in 2015.
| Partner | 2023 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|
| 5 largest increases | . | . |
| US | 12.0 | 9.2 |
| China | 12.5 | 10.0 |
| Kazakhstan | 1.8 | 0.1 |
| Norway | 4.1 | 3.0 |
| Poland | 2.4 | 2.0 |
| 5 largest decreases | . | . |
| Germany | 9.5 | 15.0 |
| Netherlands | 3.4 | 7.5 |
| Belgium | 2.3 | 5.0 |
| Russia | 0.0 | 1.1 |
| France | 5.1 | 6.1 |
| Source: UN Comtrade (2025) | ||
Netherlands largest supplier of medicines to Aruba
Of the countries importing less than US$1 billion in goods from the Netherlands, Aruba and Suriname sourced a relatively large share of total imports from the Netherlands in 2023, by value. The Netherlands is Aruba’s second-largest import partner, with a share of 12.7%, behind only the US. Medicines and alcoholic beverages were the main product groups sourced from the Netherlands by Aruba, with the Netherlands being Aruba’s main supplier of medicines. Suriname obtained 12.4% of all its goods imports from the Netherlands in 2023, making the Netherlands Suriname’s second-largest supplier of goods. The Netherlands primarily supplied excavators, processed foods and vegetables and roots to Suriname in 2023.
3.6The importance of the Netherlands as a market for goods from other countries
In this section, we discuss the Netherlands’ share in the goods exports of other countries. Besides the Netherlands’ share in exports from other economies in terms of trade value, we also look at the ranking among the main export destinations for other economies.
Figure 3.6.1 shows that the Netherlands accounted for 2.9% of global imports of goods by value in 2023. In 2023, the Netherlands ranked eighth among goods importers worldwide, after the US, China, Germany, the UK, France, Japan and India. A year before, our country had been in ninth place, behind South Korea. The US and China were again the world’s largest goods importers in 2023, with shares of 13.7% and 11.1% of total global imports, respectively.
| Jaar | US | China | Germany | UK | France | Japan | India | Netherlands |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1994 | 18.1 | 3.0 | 10.0 | 5.9 | 6.0 | 7.2 | 0.8 | 3.4 |
| 1995 | 16.3 | 2.8 | 9.8 | 5.5 | 5.8 | 7.1 | 0.8 | 3.3 |
| 1996 | 16.1 | 2.7 | 9.0 | 5.6 | 5.4 | 6.9 | 0.8 | 3.2 |
| 1997 | 16.6 | 2.6 | 8.3 | 5.7 | 4.9 | 6.3 | 0.8 | 3.0 |
| 1998 | 17.7 | 2.6 | 8.8 | 5.8 | 5.3 | 5.2 | 0.8 | 2.9 |
| 1999 | 18.9 | 3.0 | 8.4 | 5.6 | 5.1 | 5.5 | 0.9 | 3.0 |
| 2000 | 18.9 | 3.5 | 7.8 | 5.8 | 4.7 | 5.9 | 0.8 | 3.1 |
| 2001 | 18.3 | 3.9 | 7.8 | 5.8 | 4.7 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 3.1 |
| 2002 | 18.4 | 4.5 | 7.5 | 5.7 | 4.6 | 5.2 | 0.9 | 3.0 |
| 2003 | 17.1 | 5.4 | 7.9 | 5.6 | 4.7 | 5.0 | 0.9 | 3.1 |
| 2004 | 16.4 | 6.0 | 7.7 | 5.4 | 4.7 | 4.9 | 1.1 | 3.0 |
| 2005 | 16.5 | 6.3 | 7.4 | 5.0 | 4.5 | 4.9 | 1.3 | 3.0 |
| 2006 | 15.8 | 6.5 | 7.6 | 5.1 | 4.4 | 4.8 | 1.5 | 2.9 |
| 2007 | 14.4 | 6.8 | 7.6 | 4.9 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 1.6 | 3.0 |
| 2008 | 13.4 | 7.0 | 7.4 | 4.4 | 4.3 | 4.7 | 2.0 | 3.1 |
| 2009 | 12.9 | 8.1 | 7.5 | 4.4 | 4.3 | 4.4 | 2.1 | 3.1 |
| 2010 | 13.1 | 9.3 | 7.0 | 4.2 | 4.0 | 4.6 | 2.3 | 2.9 |
| 2011 | 12.6 | 9.7 | 7.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.8 | 2.6 | 2.8 |
| 2012 | 12.9 | 10.1 | 6.4 | 3.8 | 3.7 | 4.9 | 2.7 | 2.8 |
| 2013 | 12.6 | 10.5 | 6.4 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 4.5 | 2.5 | 2.8 |
| 2014 | 13.0 | 10.6 | 6.6 | 3.8 | 3.6 | 4.4 | 2.5 | 2.7 |
| 2015 | 14.2 | 10.3 | 6.5 | 3.9 | 3.5 | 3.8 | 2.4 | 2.5 |
| 2016 | 14.2 | 10.0 | 6.7 | 4.0 | 3.5 | 3.8 | 2.3 | 2.6 |
| 2017 | 13.8 | 10.5 | 6.4 | 3.7 | 3.5 | 3.8 | 2.5 | 2.6 |
| 2018 | 13.6 | 11.1 | 6.7 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 3.9 | 2.6 | 2.7 |
| 2019 | 13.7 | 11.1 | 6.6 | 3.7 | 3.4 | 3.8 | 2.6 | 2.7 |
| 2020 | 13.9 | 11.9 | 6.8 | 3.7 | 3.3 | 3.7 | 2.1 | 2.8 |
| 2021 | 13.3 | 12.2 | 6.5 | 3.1 | 3.3 | 3.5 | 2.6 | 2.8 |
| 2022 | 13.7 | 11.0 | 6.5 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 3.7 | 3.0 | 2.9 |
| 2023 | 13.7 | 11.1 | 6.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.3 | 2.9 | 2.9 |
| Source: UN Comtrade (2025) | ||||||||
Netherlands most important market for Icelandic aluminium and Nigerian crude oil
The Netherlands was among the top 5 buyers of goods from all the trading partners in Figure 3.6.2 in 2023. For Iceland, Nigeria and Ivory Coast, the Netherlands was the most important market in terms of export value in 2023. For example, in 2023, 35.8% of all Icelandic goods exports were destined for the Netherlands. In 2015, the Dutch share in Icelandic exports was nearly 10 percentage points lower. The change is mainly due to an increased export value of aluminium. The Netherlands was Iceland’s biggest market for this product in 2023. Crude oil was Nigeria’s primary export to our country in 2023, while exports from Ivory Coast consisted mainly of cocoa and crude oil.
For Guyana, our country was the fourth-largest buyer of goods in 2023, with a share of 9.3%. Guyana exported a higher value of goods to Trinidad and Tobago, the US and Singapore. The Netherlands accounted for 1.4% of Guyanese export value in 2015. The growth in export share can be attributed to a higher export value of crude oil. In 2023, Ireland sent around 8.5% of its goods exports to our country, primarily medicinal and pharmaceutical products. This made the Netherlands Ireland’s third-largest customer for these products, after the US and Belgium. In 2015, our country had ranked seventh. The Dutch share in Costa Rican exports also increased sharply. This was mainly due to a higher export value of medical instruments and devices shipped to the Netherlands.
| Partner | 2023 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|
| Iceland | 35.8 | 26.1 |
| Belgium | 13.5 | 12.1 |
| Nigeria | 12.6 | 11.8 |
| Ivory Coast | 11.5 | 11.4 |
| Guyana | 9.3 | 1.4 |
| Ireland | 8.5 | 4.4 |
| Costa Rica | 8.4 | 4.6 |
| Norway | 8.3 | 11.0 |
| Finland | 8.0 | 6.4 |
| UK | 7.1 | 5.7 |
| Germany | 7.0 | 6.1 |
| Luxembourg | 6.7 | 5.3 |
| Angola | 6.1 | 3.3 |
| Source: UN Comtrade (2025) | ||
| 1)Only trading partners with a share of trade with the Netherlands of more than 6% and who exported more than $US1 billion to the Netherlands in 2023. | ||
Netherlands loses significance as a market for Norwegian products
The Dutch share in Norwegian exports fell, from 11.0% in 2015 to 8.3% in 2023.
The total value of Norwegian exports to the Netherlands increased, but exports to other countries rose faster. Norwegian exports to Sweden and Poland displayed a particularly pronounced increase. This was mainly due to a higher export value of crude oil. The Netherlands also imported more crude oil from Norway, by value. In 2023, the Netherlands was the second most important market for Norwegian crude oil, after the UK.
If we look at the entire EU27, the Netherlands was the sixth most important buyer of goods. Germany, the US, and France were the largest markets for goods exports from the EU27. Of all goods exported by the EU27, some 4.8% came to our country in 2023.
Table 3.6.3 lists only the trading partners that exported goods worth at least €1 billion to the Netherlands in 2023, but for which the Dutch share was less than 6%. This table is therefore supplementary to the trading partners shown in Figure 3.6.2.
| 2010 | 2015 | 2022 | 2023 | Ranking of the Netherlands in 2023 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| % | |||||
| Lithuania | 5.5 | 4.0 | 5.4 | 5.9 | 4 |
| Denmark | 4.1 | 3.9 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 3 |
| Sweden | 4.8 | 5.1 | 4.8 | 5.4 | 6 |
| India | 3.0 | 1.8 | 4.1 | 5.4 | 3 |
| Kazakhstan | 7.3 | 10.8 | 7.0 | 5.2 | 4 |
| Pakistan | 1.9 | 3.0 | 5.8 | 5.0 | 5 |
| Poland | 4.4 | 4.4 | 4.6 | 4.5 | 6 |
| Philippines | 4.7 | 3.0 | 3.7 | 4.2 | 7 |
| Israel | 3.1 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 4.2 | 4 |
| Ukraine | 1.1 | 2.4 | 3.5 | 4.1 | 8 |
| Colombia | 4.1 | 4.2 | 4.7 | 4.1 | 5 |
| US | 2.9 | 2.7 | 3.5 | 4.1 | 4 |
| South Africa | 2.7 | 2.5 | 4.9 | 3.9 | 8 |
| France | 4.2 | 3.9 | 4.2 | 3.8 | 8 |
| Brazil | 4.5 | 4.2 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 4 |
| Portugal | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 3.5 | 7 |
| Czechia | 3.7 | 2.8 | 3.6 | 3.4 | 9 |
| Romania | 2.8 | 2.5 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 7 |
| Hungary | 3.2 | 3.3 | 3.6 | 3.2 | 11 |
| Spain | 3.1 | 3.2 | 3.7 | 3.1 | 8 |
| Turkey | 2.2 | 2.2 | 3.2 | 3.1 | 10 |
| China | 3.2 | 2.6 | 3.3 | 3.0 | 9 |
| Italy | 2.5 | 2.3 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 10 |
| Vietnam | 2.3 | 2.9 | 2.8 | 2.9 | 5 |
| Peru | 2.2 | 2.8 | 3.0 | 2.8 | 9 |
| Malaysia | 3.2 | 3.0 | 2.7 | 2.5 | 12 |
| Greece | 2.1 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 2.5 | 14 |
| Argentina | 3.5 | 2.1 | 4.0 | 2.3 | 9 |
| Thailand | 1.9 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 14 |
| Slovakia | 2.9 | 2.4 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 13 |
| Japan | 2.1 | 1.9 | 1.7 | 1.9 | 13 |
| Austria | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.9 | 1.8 | 15 |
| Singapore | 1.7 | 1.7 | 2.2 | 1.8 | 13 |
| Hong Kong | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 8 |
| Switzerland | 2.8 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 16 |
| Chile | 3.7 | 2.6 | 1.9 | 1.7 | 7 |
| Indonesia | 2.4 | 2.3 | 1.8 | 1.5 | 11 |
| Saudi Arabia | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1.4 | 17 |
| South Korea | 1.1 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 1.1 | 18 |
| Canada | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 6 |
| Australia | 1.1 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 0.9 | 14 |
| UAE | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 18 |
| Mexico | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 12 |
Source:UN Comtrade (2025)
1)Only trading partners with a Dutch share of <6% and goods exports to the Netherlands worth ≥1 billion US dollars in 2023.
Netherlands increases its share in Indian and Pakistani goods exports…
In 2023, the Netherlands received 5.4% of India’s goods exports, mainly refined petroleum products. This made it the biggest market for refined petroleum products from India. In 2015, the Netherlands had ranked sixth. In 2023, the Dutch market share in India’s exports was 3.5 percentage points higher than in 2015. From India’s perspective, the US, the UAE and then the Netherlands were the most important markets for its goods in 2023. In 2015, there were thirteen other countries ahead of the Netherlands. Also see CBS (2023) for more details about the Indian economy and trade relationships between the Netherlands and India.
The Dutch share in Pakistan’s goods exports rose from 3.0% in 2015 to 5.0% in 2023. In 2023, the Netherlands was Pakistan’s fifth most important export partner, having overtaken Afghanistan, the UAE, Spain and Bangladesh. Pakistan’s exports destined for the Netherlands consisted primarily of clothing.
Netherlands biggest buyer of cocoa from São Tomé and Príncipe
Among countries exporting less than US$1 billion in goods to the Netherlands, the West African country of São Tomé and Príncipe exported a relatively large share of its export value to the Netherlands. The Netherlands was the largest export destination for São Tomé and Príncipe in 2023, with a share of 60.3%. This country primarily supplied cocoa and palm oil to Netherlands. The Netherlands was the most important market for both products for São Tomé and Príncipe.
3.7References
References
CBS (2023). Internationalisation Monitor 2023, first edition: India Statistics Netherlands (CBS).
CBS (2024a). StatLine – Imports/exports; change of ownership; volume and price, changes. [Dataset]. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). Accessed on 14 May 2025.
CBS (2024b). Internationalisation Monitor 2024, first edition: Belgium Statistics Netherlands (CBS).
CBS (2025). StatLine – Consumer prices; price index 2015=100. [Dataset]. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). Accessed on 8 May 2025.
Creemers, S., Jaarsma, M., & Rooyakkers, J. (2022). Vooral minder door- en wederuitvoer naar het VK sinds Brexit. Economisch Statistische Berichten, 107(4816), 545–547.
De Correspondent. (2024). Nederland is een oliestaat en blijft dat voorlopig ook. De correspondent. Accessed on 27 June 2025.
Eigenraam, A. (2025, 17 January). China haalt niet geheel onverwacht officieel groeidoel van 5% over 2024. Het Financieele Dagblad. Accessed on 16 May 2025.
Europese Raad (2023). 30th anniversary of the EU single market. Accessed on 1 May 2025.
GOV.UK (2025, 7 May). UK sanctions relating to Russia. Accessed on 14 May 2025.
Lecluyse, W. (2024, 15 February). Vergrijzing kost Japan plek bij allergrootste economieën. De Standaard. Accessed on 14 May 2025.
NOS Nieuws (2024, 23 February). VS en VK komen met nieuwe sancties tegen Rusland. Nederlandse Omroep Stichting. Accessed on 14 May 2025.
Ramaekers, P., & Houben-van Herten, M. (2024). Major developments in 2023 and 2024. In S. Creemers, M. Houben-van Herten & R. Voncken (Eds.), Dutch Trade in Facts and Figures 2024: Exports, imports & investment. Statistics Netherlands (CBS).
Rijksoverheid (2022). Verbod op Russische ruwe aardolie en aardolieproducten. Accessed on 9 May 2025.
RVO (2024, 25 April). Ghana: ontdek uw kansen in de cacaoverwerking. Netherlands Enterprise Agency (Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland). Accessed on 6 May 2025.
Smid, R. (2025, 18 March). China’s positie als fabriek van de wereld wordt aan alle kanten bedreigd. Het Financieele Dagblad. Accessed on 16 May 2025.
Van Teutem, S. (2024, 29 January). De harde realiteit na vier jaar Brexit: alle beloftes naar de gallemiezen. De Correspondent. Accessed on 1 November 2024.
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Wilson, T. (2025, 9 May). UK hits key figures in Russian oil trade with sanctions. Financial Times. Accessed on 14 May 2025.
Noten
In Chapters 6 and 7 of this publication we make use of the figures from the National Accounts compiled by CBS. The National Accounts are based on the concept of change of ownership. Partly as a result of this, the figures in Chapters 6 and 7 differ from the figures reported in Chapters 2 and 3, which are based on the concept of border crossing.