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Footprint of Dutch imports

Author: Nieke Aerts

The footprint of Dutch imports consists of imports for Dutch consumers, imports for Dutch producers for consumption in the Netherlands, imports for Dutch producers for export and imports for re-export. In terms of imports for Dutch consumers, the greenhouse gas footprint, land use footprint and resource footprint were larger in 2021 than in 2020. In terms of imports for Dutch producers, the greenhouse gas footprint was larger in 2021 than it was in 2020; the land use footprint and resource footprint were smaller. In terms of imports for Dutch producers for exports, the greenhouse gas footprint, land use footprint and resource footprint were larger in 2021 than in 2020. In terms of imports for re-export, the greenhouse gas footprint, land use footprint and resource footprint were smaller in 2021 than in 2020.

The footprint of Dutch imports is the environmental burden abroad caused by goods and services imported into the Netherlands. Not all of these goods and services remain in the Netherlands. Some find their way to a Dutch consumer, either directly or via a Dutch producer, but others leave the Netherlands again as re-exports or as export products. The previous chapter made clear how essential imports are to the Dutch economy. For instance, certain raw materials are scarcely available in the Netherlands or not at all. Moreover, it can be more efficient for Dutch enterprises to concentrate certain activities abroad rather than doing everything themselves. However, it is important that we also study the impact of those imports. For example, how much land is used to produce the goods that the Netherlands imports? And how many raw materials are required? What are the greenhouse gas emissions associated with goods and services imported by the Netherlands as a result of their production in other countries?

8.1Key findings

  • Overall, more was imported by value in 2021 than in 2020, and the greenhouse gas (GHG) footprint of imports also increased. However, the material footprint and land use footprint of Dutch imports decreased.
  • Goods imports generally have a larger footprint than services imports. However, the reduction in the material and land use footprint of Dutch imports cannot be explained by a fall in goods imports, since these increased by 21% in value and by almost 9% in volume.
  • Of the imports that remain in the Netherlands (for example imports for direct domestic expenditures and those that are incorporated into products that are consumed in the Netherlands), both the land use footprint and the material footprint was smaller.
  • In particular, less arable land was used for imports that are consumed in the Netherlands. On the one hand 2021 was a productive agricultural year, but on the other hand prices rose, which may explain why the volume of agricultural imports fell compared to 2020.
  • With respect to the Netherlands’ material footprint, only fossil fuels increased. This was the case for both imports that remain in the Netherlands and imports that leave the Netherlands again. The increase in the volume of imports of petroleum and petroleum products was the main reason for this increase, and imports only fell after 2021.
  • The GHG footprint of imports increased slightly compared to 2021. The GHG footprint of imports of computers and electronics for direct domestic expenditures increased sharply from 4.6 megatonnes of CO2 equivalents to 6.3 megatonnes of CO2 equivalents.
  • The GHG footprint of imports of agricultural products direct domestic expenditures also increased from 8.1 megatonnes of CO2 equivalents to 9.3 megatonnes of CO2 equivalents.
  • By contrast, the GHG footprint of intermediate imports of agricultural products processed into products remaining in the Netherlands decreased from 9.3 megatonnes of CO2 equivalents to 6.6 megatonnes of CO2 equivalents.

Outline

In section 8.2, we explain what the import footprint is and which footprints are covered in this chapter. Each of the following sections discusses one type of environmental footprint. In section 8.3, it is the land use footprint. This is followed by the material footprint in section 8.4 and the greenhouse gas footprint in section 8.5. The description of the data and method used may be found in last year’s edition (Aerts & Weijers, 2024).

8.2Introduction

This chapter focuses on the footprint of imports. The import footprint of a product comprises everything that happens in the production chain of that product until it comes into the ownership of an enterprise or person in the Netherlands. More details may be found in Aerts & Weijers (2024). The results in this chapter are for the reporting year 2021, and when we refer to the previous year we mean 2020. The method is the same as in Aerts & Weijers (2024). The research is based on a multi-regional input-output table (MRIO) called PBL-FIGARO (In ’t Veld, 2025). Because they require information from many different countries, MRIOs always lag some years behind.

As in Chapter 7 of this publication, imports are split into four categories:

  • imports directly for domestic expenditures
  • intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
  • intermediate imports for exports
  • imports for re-export

Different measurable effects: different footprints

There are many different secondary effects of a production process that impact the world around us. Some of those secondary effects can be measured. Perhaps the best-known example is CO2 emissions. For every measurable secondary effect of a production process, a footprint can be calculated. This chapter focuses on three measurable effects:

  1. Land use: how much land area is needed and for which type of land use? Forest, cropland, pasture or mining and quarrying? We call this the land use footprint.
  2. Use of raw materials: how many raw materials are needed? Here, we differentiate between the use of biomass, fossil fuels, primary (for example unprocessed) metals and other mineral raw materials. We call this the material footprint.
  3. Greenhouse gas emissions: emissions of CO2 (from biomass and fossil fuels), N2O (nitrous oxide) and CH4 (methane) are included in the greenhouse gas footprint.

Interpretation of this research

In this chapter, we investigate the land use, material and greenhouse gas footprints associated with imports into the Netherlands. At the level of detail in this study, the latest data available are for the year 2021. The goal of this chapter is to obtain a detailed understanding of those footprints and the differences between them. In which countries do Dutch imports have an impact? And which industries are responsible for that impact? Here we are investigating the heterogeneity of Dutch imports; their total value is less important in this study. For more detail on the data and method used, see Aerts & Weijers (2024).

Majority of Dutch imports not for domestic expenditure

Figure 8.2.1 shows the share of the four imports by use in the three different import footprints and in the total value of imports. Imports for re-export account for the largest share in all three footprints, and this is also the largest category in terms of value. The second largest category consists of intermediate imports processed into export products. The majority of Dutch imports are therefore not destined for domestic expenditure but for foreign markets. More than 70% of all three footprints belong to imports that do not remain in the Netherlands.

Agricultural products and food products make up a relatively large proportion of imports directly for domestic expenditures, which translates to a relatively greater share in the land and greenhouse gas footprints than in the material footprint. The value of imports directly for domestic expenditures increased compared to 2020, as did the size of all three footprints.

The share of intermediate imports for exports in value is greater than the share in the three footprints. The share in the material footprint most closely approaches the share in value; this includes fossil fuels used in production processes or to provide energy for households. Services imports make only a small contribution to the land use and material footprints.

The share of intermediate imports for exports in all three footprints are greater than their share in import value. The imported goods and services therefore have a larger than average footprint. This is not explained by the fact that those intermediate imports comprise relatively more goods; in fact, the opposite is the case. Services imports amounted to 22% of total import value and 39% of the value of intermediate imports for exports (Aerts et al., 2023). Services imports contribute primarily to the greenhouse gas footprint.

Imports for re-export have a relatively large greenhouse gas footprint. This is caused in part by imports for re-export of relatively cheap agricultural products and chemical products with a relatively large greenhouse gas footprint. The value of imports for re-export has risen compared to 2020 and all the footprints have decreased in size.

8.2.1 Shares of imports by use in the various import footprints and in the total value of imports in 2021
Use Goods or services type share Footprint Use or factor
Imports directly for domestic expenditures Services Raw material footprint 0,2 Raw material footprint Services Imports directly for domestic expenditures
Imports directly for domestic expenditures Goods Raw material footprint 10,7 Raw material footprint Goods Imports directly for domestic expenditures
Imports for re-exports Services Raw material footprint 0,2 Raw material footprint Services Imports for re-exports
Imports for re-exports Goods Raw material footprint 41 Raw material footprint Goods Imports for re-exports
Intermediate imports for exports Services Raw material footprint 1,4 Raw material footprint Services Intermediate imports for exports
Intermediate imports for exports Goods Raw material footprint 29,9 Raw material footprint Goods Intermediate imports for exports
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Services Raw material footprint 0,9 Raw material footprint Services Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Goods Raw material footprint 15,6 Raw material footprint Goods Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Imports directly for domestic expenditures Services Greenhouse gas footprint 0,7 Greenhouse gas footprint Services Imports directly for domestic expenditures
Imports directly for domestic expenditures Goods Greenhouse gas footprint 12 Greenhouse gas footprint Goods Imports directly for domestic expenditures
Imports for re-exports Services Greenhouse gas footprint 0,8 Greenhouse gas footprint Services Imports for re-exports
Imports for re-exports Goods Greenhouse gas footprint 44,4 Greenhouse gas footprint Goods Imports for re-exports
Intermediate imports for exports Services Greenhouse gas footprint 5 Greenhouse gas footprint Services Intermediate imports for exports
Intermediate imports for exports Goods Greenhouse gas footprint 23,5 Broeikasgasvoetafdruk Goederen Intermediate imports for exports
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Services Greenhouse gas footprint 2,6 Greenhouse gas footprint Services Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Goods Greenhouse gas footprint 11,1 Greenhouse gas footprint Goods Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Imports directly for domestic expenditures Services Land use footprint 0,3 Land use footprint Services Imports directly for domestic expenditures
Imports directly for domestic expenditures Goods Land use footprint 13,7 Land use footprint Goods Imports directly for domestic expenditures
Imports for re-exports Services Land use footprint 0,2 Land use footprint Services Imports for re-exports
Imports for re-exports Goods Land use footprint 41,7 Land use footprint Goods Imports for re-exports
Intermediate imports for exports Services Land use footprint 1,9 Land use footprint Services Intermediate imports for exports
Intermediate imports for exports Goods Land use footprint 26,8 Land use footprint Goods Intermediate imports for exports
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Services Land use footprint 1,1 Land use footprint Services Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Goods Land use footprint 14,4 Land use footprint Goods Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Intermediate imports for exports Goods Value 18 Value Goods Intermediate imports for exports
Intermediate imports for exports Services Value 11 Value Services Intermediate imports for exports
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Goods Value 10 Value Goods Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Services Value 7 Value Services Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Imports directly for domestic expenditures Goods Value 11 Value Goods Imports directly for domestic expenditures
Imports directly for domestic expenditures Services Value 3 Value Services Imports directly for domestic expenditures
Imports for re-exports Goods Value 39 Value Goods Imports for re-exports
Imports for re-exports Services Value 1 Value Services Imports for re-exports

8.3Land use footprint of imports

The land use footprint of total domestic expenditures in 2021 is estimated at 13.3 million hectares (ha), of which less than 10% takes place in the Netherlands (CLO, 2025a).

The majority of this footprint therefore comes from imports. The land use footprint of total Dutch imports was 40.8 million hectares in 2021. Of this, 11.6 million hectares of land use is for imports that ultimately remain in the Netherlands. Just as in 2020, the majority of the land use footprint of imports relates to cropland; see Figure 8.3.1. However, the difference between cropland and forest has diminished due to a reduction in the cropland footprint of imports (compared to 2020) and an increase in the forest footprint. The decrease in cropland used can partly be explained by a productive year for agriculture, for example in Brazil, which posted a record soya harvest per hectare (USDA, 2025). In addition, the prices of various agricultural products increased, for example soya and wheat (Trading Economics, 2025a and 2025b) and the import volumes of these products fell slightly relative to 2020, despite the fact that the value of these import categories increased (see also Chapter 3 of this publication). The growth of the forest footprint is explained by increased imports of wood and wood products (CBS, 2025).

8.3.1 Land use footprint of Dutch imports, by usage, 2021 (million ha)
Voetafdruk Imports directly for domestic expenditures Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Intermediate imports for export Imports for re-export
Cropland 2.3 2.5 8.0 6.2
Forest 1.4 2.9 3.1 5.6
Mining area 0 0 0.1 0.1
Pasture 1.6 0.9 2.0 4.1

The red line in Figure 8.3.1 shows the land area of the Netherlands. This figure reveals that even the land used for imports that remain in the Netherlands (the blue bars) exceeds the land area of the Netherlands. Imports that remain in the Netherlands consist of imports directly for domestic expenditures (end products that can be consumed directly) and intermediate imports processed for domestic expenditure: intermediate imports used in the Dutch production chain to make goods and services which are then consumed in the Netherlands. The majority of the land use footprint of imports comes from products that do not remain in the Netherlands, which is to say imports for re-export, or intermediate imports processed for exports.

Land use footprint of imports remaining in the Netherlands: nearly 3.5 times the land area of the Netherlands

The footprint of imports that remain in the Netherlands is a component of the footprint of Dutch consumption. On the one hand, these imports consist of imports directly for domestic expenditures, for example a mobile telephone made in China or an agricultural machine for a Dutch farmer (investments in fixed assets). On the other hand, they consist of intermediary products which are processed in the Netherlands and then consumed – for example, tomatoes that are processed into tomato sauce in the Netherlands or an administrative service used by a Dutch-based enterprise that produces sweets. Both categories increased in value in 2021 compared to 2020 (Aerts et al., 2023).

In total, a quarter of the different footprints belongs to imports that are consumed in the Netherlands directly or after processing (see Figure 8.2.1). This flow has the largest share in the land use footprint: nearly 29%. Imports of agricultural products, food products and wood and paper products account for most of this. Compared to 2020, the land use footprint of the imports directly for domestic expenditures has fallen: from 12.3 million hectares to 11.7 million hectares in 2021. Figure 8.3.2 shows that, in particular, the use of cropland for intermediate imports directly for domestic expenditures has fallen.

8.3.2 Land use footprint of imports for domestic expenditures (million ha)
Gebruik Cropland Forest Mining area Pasture
2021 . . . .
Intermediate imports for
domestic expenditures		 2.480 2.864 0.035 0.893
Imports directly for
domestic expenditures		 2.335 1.437 0.036 1.578
2020 . . . .
Intermediate imports
for domestic expenditures		 3.178 2.902 0.031 1.035
Imports directly for
domestic expenditures		 2.293 1.144 0.012 1.735

Products with a large land use footprint in the US are relatively more likely to be imported as end products

Figure 8.3.3 shows the five countries where the land use footprint of Dutch imports directly for domestic expenditures was greatest in 2021. The source data do not include all countries and the residual category is significantly larger: 3.8 million hectares lie in countries that do not feature in the source data as such.noot1 Of the land use footprint linked to a specific country, the largest share is in Russia: 784 thousand hectares. In 2020, Russia ranked third. In 2021, imports from Russia were significantly higher than in 2020 (CBS, 2022a). Only in 2022 did imports from Russia begin to fall due to the sanctions imposed (CBS, 2023).

The largest import category by value from Russia is mineral fuels, which make only a limited contribution to the land use footprint; mining and quarrying is just visible in Figure 8.3.3. The import category with the largest land use footprint in Russia was wood and wood products.

The land use footprint in France is 732 thousand hectares, making it the second largest in 2021. This is mainly due to imports of French agricultural products and food products. As such, this footprint consists largely of cropland, including vineyards. Intermediate imports of grain have a sizeable land use footprint in France. Within imports directly for domestic expenditures, imports of wine has a large land use footprint in France. Germany is third on the list, with 724 thousand hectares. Imports of grain and bread products have a large land use footprints in Germany. In 2021, the Netherlands was the EU’s largest importer of agricultural goods from Brazil (CBS, 2022b). Large volumes of soybeans and soybean meal are imported from Brazil, much of it for the feed industry. Soya is Brazil’s second largest export product and is often associated with deforestation (Reis, 2022). Imports directly for domestic consumption from Brazil include meat and fruit juices.

In the US, the ratio between the footprint of imports directly for domestic expenditures and intermediate imports for domestic expenditures is different than for the other countries in the top 5. The majority of this footprint is caused by imports of food products. Products with a large land use footprint in the US are thus relatively more likely to have already been processed into end products before they enter the Netherlands.

8.3.3 Land use footprint of imports for domestic expenditures, top 5 countries (1,000 ha)
Gebruik Cropland Forest Pasture
Russia . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 42 459 40
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 61 138 30
France . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 355 115 38
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 145 36 43
Germany . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 234 149 50
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 158 51 82
Brazil . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 155 148 50
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 84 82 70
US . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 95 157 32
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 153 64 49

Food and beverages industry has largest import land use footprint

The food and beverages industry has the largest import land use footprint for intermediate imports. Figure 8.3.4 shows that most sectors primarily use intermediate imports to make export products. Only the land use of intermediate imports for construction is predominantly production for domestic expenditures. Within the food and beverages industry, more than one-third of land use is accounted for by imports for the livestock/feed industry. Imports are important for the Netherlands because given our current diet, there is not enough space in the Netherlands for the country to be self-sufficient in terms of food (Navarro, 2023). The product categories with the largest land use footprint within Dutch imports are agricultural products and food products. These two product categories also account for the majority of the land use footprint of intermediate imports: nearly 59%.

8.3.4 Land use footprint of intermediate imports by sector, 2021
Use Type of footprint Sector Footprint
Domestic expenditures Cropland Other 602,61
Exports Cropland Other 628,8
Domestic expenditures Forest Other 1152,22
Exports Forest Other 1216,67
Domestic expenditures Mining area Other 28,41
Exports Mining area Other 64,09
Domestic expenditures Pastures Other 471,94
Exports Pastures Other 609,19
Domestic expenditures Cropland Food services 1002,31
Exports Cropland Food services 3578,72
Domestic expenditures Forest Food services 77,15
Exports Forest Food services 371,08
Domestic expenditures Mining area Food services 0,32
Exports Mining area Food services 1,22
Domestic expenditures Pastures Food services 210,78
Exports Pastures Food services 884,1
Domestic expenditures Cropland Food services: Animal feed 652,49
Exports Cropland Food services: Animal feed 2806,81
Domestic expenditures Forest Food services: Animal feed 14,58
Exports Forest Food services: Animal feed 62,73
Domestic expenditures Mining area Food services: Animal feed 0,08
Exports Mining area Food services: Animal feed 0,33
Domestic expenditures Pastures Food services: Animal feed 37,79
Exports Pastures Food services: Animal feed 162,55
Domestic expenditures Cropland Beverages 91,28
Exports Cropland Beverages 585,87
Domestic expenditures Forest Beverages 5,67
Exports Forest Beverages 36,37
Domestic expenditures Mining area Beverages 0,04
Exports Mining area Beverages 0,29
Domestic expenditures Pastures Beverages 8,75
Exports Pastures Beverages 56,15
Domestic expenditures Cropland Woodworking, pulp and paper and graphic manufacturing 5,39
Exports Cropland Woodworking, pulp and paper and graphic manufacturing 13
Domestic expenditures Forest Woodworking, pulp and paper and graphic manufacturing 849,18
Exports Forest Woodworking, pulp and paper and graphic manufacturing 973,35
Domestic expenditures Mining area Woodworking, pulp and paper and graphic manufacturing 0,17
Exports Mining area Woodworking, pulp and paper and graphic manufacturing 0,33
Domestic expenditures Pastures Woodworking, pulp and paper and graphic manufacturing 12,31
Exports Pastures Woodworking, pulp and paper and graphic manufacturing 22,66
Domestic expenditures Cropland Chemical 9,49
Exports Cropland Chemical 113,13
Domestic expenditures Forest Chemical 15,31
Exports Forest Chemical 187,2
Domestic expenditures Mining area Chemical 0,47
Exports Mining area Chemical 5,79
Domestic expenditures Pastures Chemical 15,37
Exports Pastures Chemical 181,72
Domestic expenditures Cropland Construction 34,79
Exports Cropland Construction 3,42
Domestic expenditures Forest Construction 660,39
Exports Forest Construction 65,04
Domestic expenditures Mining area Construction 4,75
Exports Mining area Construction 0,46
Domestic expenditures Pastures Construction 89,42
Exports Pastures Construction 8,66
Domestic expenditures Cropland Business services 82,11
Exports Cropland Business services 237,92
Domestic expenditures Forest Business services 89,75
Exports Forest Business services 158,71
Domestic expenditures Mining area Business services 0,73
Exports Mining area Business services 1,13
Domestic expenditures Pastures Business services 46,76
Exports Pastures Business services 84,48

Share of forest in land use of imports for re-export is increasing

The land use footprint of imports for re-export stood at 16 million hectares; see Figure 8.3.5.

Approximately 40% of the land use footprint of this import category consists of cropland. 10% of the value of imports for re-export consists of agricultural products and food products. However, these product categories have nearly 50% of the land use footprint. Computers and electronic products make up the largest product category by value in imports for re-export. This product category has a land use footprint of only 0.5 million hectares.

The share of forest in the land used for imports for re-export increased in 2021 compared to the previous year. This is explained by a volume increase of imports of wood and wood products for re-export. The entire European Union saw a growth in exports of wood in 2021 (see Figure 6 in Eurostat, 2023).

8.3.5 Land use footprint of imports for re-exports, 20211)
Product group Type of footprint Footprint Share
Agricultural products Cropland 3,13 20
Agricultural products Forest 0,21 1
Agricultural products Mining area 0 0
Agricultural products Pastures 0,66 4
Wood and paper Cropland 0,01 0
Wood and paper Forest 2,98 19
Wood and paper Mining area 0 0
Wood and paper Pastures 0,03 0
Other Cropland 0,04 0
Other Forest 0,17 1
Other Mining area 0,1 1
Other Pastures 0,11 1
Food products Cropland 2,15 13
Food products Forest 0,19 1
Food products Mining area 0 0
Food products Pastures 1,53 10
Other manufacturing Cropland 0,91 6
Other manufacturing Forest 2,03 13
Other manufacturing Mining area 0,05 0
Other manufacturing Pastures 1,73 11
¹⁾ Total: 16.0 million hectares, of which 6.2 million hectares cropland, 5.6 million hectares forest, 4.1 million hectares pasture and 147 thousand hectares of mining area.
Source: CBS, PBL (2025)

8.4Material footprint of imports

In 2021, the material footprint of Dutch consumption amounted to 571 megatonnesnoot2, a slight increase relative to 2020 but still low compared to other EU countries (CLO, 2025b). Imports that remained in the Netherlands had a material footprint of 442 megatonnes. In other words, more than three-quarters of the consumption footprint comes from imports. The material footprint of total Dutch imports was 1,639 megatonnes in 2021, a slight fall compared to 2020 (Aerts & Weijers, 2024). The Netherlands depends on foreign supplies for all of its metals and 90% of its fossil fuels. In addition, more than half of biomass and other mineral raw materials comes from abroad (CBS, 2024). In 2021, the majority of the material footprint of imports consisted of imports of fossil fuels; see Figure 8.4.1. The fossil fuel material footprint of imports rose sharply in 2021 compared to 2020. This was caused by an increased demand for exports and re-exports. The other three material footprints contracted relative to 2020.

8.4.1 Material footprint of Dutch imports, by usage, 2021 (megatonnes)
Voetafdruk,Invoer voor directe binnenlandse bestedingen,Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland,Intermediaire invoer voor export,Invoer voor wederuitvoerBiomassa,83,47,119,165\nFossiele energiedragers,42,88,277,263\nMetalen,17,18,46,91\nOverige minerale grondstoffen,30,115,96,133\n"},"series":[{"name":"Imports for direct domestic expenditures","isSerie":true,"borderColor":"#FFFFFF","data":[{"y":83,"yString":"83","name":"Biomass"},{"y":42,"yString":"42","name":"Fossil fuels"},{"y":17,"yString":"17","name":"Metals"},{"y":30,"yString":"30","name":"Non-metallic minerals"}]},{"name":"Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures","isSerie":true,"borderColor":"#FFFFFF","data":[{"y":47,"yString":"47","name":"Biomass"},{"y":88,"yString":"88","name":"Fossil fuels"},{"y":18,"yString":"18","name":"Metals"},{"y":115,"yString":"115","name":"Non-metallic minerals"}]},{"name":"Intermediate imports for exports","isSerie":true,"borderColor":"#FFFFFF","data":[{"y":119,"yString":"119","name":"Biomass"},{"y":277,"yString":"277","name":"Fossil fuels"},{"y":46,"yString":"46","name":"Metals"},{"y":96,"yString":"96","name":"Non-metallic minerals"}]},{"name":"Imports for re-exports","isSerie":true,"borderColor":"#FFFFFF","data":[{"y":165,"yString":"165","name":"Biomass"},{"y":263,"yString":"263","name":"Fossil fuels"},{"y":91,"yString":"91","name":"Metals"},{"y":133,"yString":"133","name":"Non-metallic minerals"}]}],"lang":{"downloadJPEG":"Download JPEG image","downloadPDF":"Download PDF document","downloadPNG":"Download PNG image","downloadSVG":"Download SVG vector image","drillUpText":"Back to {series.name}","loading":"Loading...","noData":"No data to display","printChart":"Print chart","resetZoom":"Reset zoom","resetZoomTitle":"Reset zoom level 1:1","legend":{"less":"Less than","more":"or more","to":"to","noData":"No data"},"tooltip":{"nullDataMessage":"Data is unavailable or confidential"},"decimalPoint":".","thousandsSep":","},"cultureSelection":"English","selectedCultureId":"en"}, function(chart) { Highcharts.setOptions({lang: {decimalPoint: chart.options.lang.decimalPoint,thousandsSep: chart.options.lang.thousandsSep},tooltip: {pointFormatter: cbs.chartTooltipFormatter}}) Imports for direct domestic expenditures Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Intermediate imports for exports Imports for re-exports
Biomass 83 47 119 165
Fossil fuels 42 88 277 263
Metals 17 18 46 91
Non-metallic minerals 30 115 96 133

Germany source of most non-metallic minerals remaining in the Netherlands

Of the material footprint of imports that remain in the Netherlands, that of non-metallic minerals is the largest. Imports with a large non-metallic mineral footprint are used in Dutch production, for example stone and cement for construction. Figure 8.4.2 shows that much of this footprint lies in Germany. This is primarily due to imports of sand, gravel and cement. The non-metallic mineral footprint in China is largely caused by imports of end products containing minerals, such as electrical appliances containing mica. Mica is a large group of minerals that can be used to make thin, elastic sheets that are non-conductive. For this reason, it is often used in electrical appliances that contain circuit boards. China is the world’s largest producer of mica (USGS, 2023).

Of the biomass footprint, 82% is caused by imports of agricultural and food products. Whereas imports of wood and wood products accounted for a significant share of the land use footprint, their share of the material footprint is only 1%, most of which is biomass.

The material footprint in Russia and the US consists primarily of fossil fuels, both of which have increased since 2020. Turkey primarily supplied large quantities of clothing, which explains the relatively large biomass footprint of imports directly for domestic expenditures.

8.4.2 Raw material footprint of imports that stay in the Netherlands, top 10 countries, 2021
Raw material Footprint Country Use
Biomass 2,28 Belgium Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 0 Belgium Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 0 Belgium Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 0,41 Belgium Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 3,47 Brazil Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 0,11 Brazil Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 0,81 Brazil Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 0,72 Brazil Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 1,67 China Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 4,38 China Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 2,72 China Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 7,26 China Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 4,34 Germany Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 2,55 Germany Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 0,01 Germany Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 1,88 Germany Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 0,55 UK Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 2,38 UK Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 0 UK Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 0,3 UK Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 1,31 India Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 0,53 India Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 0,26 India Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 2,01 India Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 0,03 Norway Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 1,88 Norway Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 0 Norway Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 0,08 Norway Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 0,46 Russia Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 7,28 Russia Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 0,45 Russia Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 0,52 Russia Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 5,99 Turkey Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 0,09 Turkey Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 0,15 Turkey Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 0,38 Turkey Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 1,41 US Direct domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 4,79 US Direct domestic expenditures
Metals 0,84 US Direct domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 0,72 US Direct domestic expenditures
Biomass 2,39 Belgium Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 0 Belgium Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 0 Belgium Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 12,5 Belgium Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Biomass 2,62 Brazil Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 0,45 Brazil Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 2,19 Brazil Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 0,66 Brazil Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Biomass 1,51 China Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 3,07 China Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 2,08 China Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 6,73 China Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Biomass 7,64 Germany Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 1,81 Germany Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 0,01 Germany Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 40,4 Germany Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Biomass 0,61 UK Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 5,87 UK Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 0,01 UK Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 3,55 UK Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Biomass 1,67 India Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 0,59 India Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 0,28 India Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 3,16 India Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Biomass 0,05 Norway Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 4,02 Norway Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 0,06 Norway Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 4,93 Norway Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Biomass 0,74 Russia Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 19,16 Russia Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 0,49 Russia Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 1,11 Russia Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Biomass 0,77 Turkey Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 0,08 Turkey Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 0,17 Turkey Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 1,77 Turkey Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Biomass 1,45 US Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Fossil fuels 10,82 US Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Metals 0,9 US Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Non-metallic minerals 2,27 US Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures

Higher import material footprint for the oil-refining industry

The material footprint of imports for the oil-refining industry rose by 22% compared to 2020, to 231 megatonnes. Of this, 196 megatonnes are intermediate imports for exports (see Figure 8.4.3), mostly crude oil and natural gas (see Table 8.4.4). The material footprint of the food, beverages and tobacco industry rose by 14%. Again, the majority of the increase is attributable to intermediate imports for exports. The construction sector accounts for the largest share of intermediate imports for exports. The building materials industry is the only other industry for which the material footprint of intermediate imports for domestic expenditures is larger than that of exports.

8.4.3 Raw material footprint of imported intermediates, by material, 2021
Sector Type of footprint Footprint Use
Agriculture, forestry and fishing Biomass 2,51 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Agriculture, forestry and fishing Biomass 7,15 Intermediate imports for exports
Agriculture, forestry and fishing Fossil fuels 1,62 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Agriculture, forestry and fishing Fossil fuels 7,97 Intermediate imports for exports
Agriculture, forestry and fishing Metals 0,06 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Agriculture, forestry and fishing Metals 0,2 Intermediate imports for exports
Agriculture, forestry and fishing Non-metallic minerals 1,45 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Agriculture, forestry and fishing Non-metallic minerals 4,18 Intermediate imports for exports
Food, beverages and tobacco Biomass 22,41 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Food, beverages and tobacco Biomass 89,73 Intermediate imports for exports
Food, beverages and tobacco Fossil fuels 1,49 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Food, beverages and tobacco Fossil fuels 4,8 Intermediate imports for exports
Food, beverages and tobacco Metals 0,35 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Food, beverages and tobacco Metals 1,44 Intermediate imports for exports
Food, beverages and tobacco Non-metallic minerals 2,5 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Food, beverages and tobacco Non-metallic minerals 10,67 Intermediate imports for exports
Crude oil Biomass 0,28 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Crude oil Biomass 1,55 Intermediate imports for exports
Crude oil Fossil fuels 33,29 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Crude oil Fossil fuels 183,24 Intermediate imports for exports
Crude oil Metals 0,55 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Crude oil Metals 3,03 Intermediate imports for exports
Crude oil Non-metallic minerals 1,44 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Crude oil Non-metallic minerals 7,95 Intermediate imports for exports
Chemical Biomass 0,27 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Chemical Biomass 3,11 Intermediate imports for exports
Chemical Fossil fuels 2,21 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Chemical Fossil fuels 26,77 Intermediate imports for exports
Chemical Metals 0,25 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Chemical Metals 3,03 Intermediate imports for exports
Chemical Non-metallic minerals 1,19 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Chemical Non-metallic minerals 14,64 Intermediate imports for exports
Building materials Biomass 0,08 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Building materials Biomass 0,04 Intermediate imports for exports
Building materials Fossil fuels 0,78 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Building materials Fossil fuels 0,33 Intermediate imports for exports
Building materials Metals 0,13 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Building materials Metals 0,06 Intermediate imports for exports
Building materials Non-metallic minerals 17,52 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Building materials Non-metallic minerals 7,11 Intermediate imports for exports
Basic metal Biomass 0,07 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Basic metal Biomass 0,37 Intermediate imports for exports
Basic metal Fossil fuels 0,91 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Basic metal Fossil fuels 5,49 Intermediate imports for exports
Basic metal Metals 3,08 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Basic metal Metals 21,74 Intermediate imports for exports
Basic metal Non-metallic minerals 0,78 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Basic metal Non-metallic minerals 5,18 Intermediate imports for exports
Energy supply Biomass 0,32 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Energy supply Biomass 0,35 Intermediate imports for exports
Energy supply Fossil fuels 20,56 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Energy supply Fossil fuels 22,13 Intermediate imports for exports
Energy supply Metals 0,3 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Energy supply Metals 0,31 Intermediate imports for exports
Energy supply Non-metallic minerals 0,38 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Energy supply Non-metallic minerals 0,39 Intermediate imports for exports
Construction Biomass 2,4 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Construction Biomass 0,23 Intermediate imports for exports
Construction Fossil fuels 6,62 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Construction Fossil fuels 0,66 Intermediate imports for exports
Construction Metals 5,22 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Construction Metals 0,51 Intermediate imports for exports
Construction Non-metallic minerals 60,59 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Construction Non-metallic minerals 6,42 Intermediate imports for exports
Transport and storage Biomass 0,25 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Transport and storage Biomass 0,89 Intermediate imports for exports
Transport and storage Fossil fuels 1,37 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Transport and storage Fossil fuels 5,18 Intermediate imports for exports
Transport and storage Metals 0,34 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Transport and storage Metals 1,21 Intermediate imports for exports
Transport and storage Non-metallic minerals 1,77 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Transport and storage Non-metallic minerals 6,8 Intermediate imports for exports
Business services Biomass 3,22 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Business services Biomass 3,76 Intermediate imports for exports
Business services Fossil fuels 1,66 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Business services Fossil fuels 2,57 Intermediate imports for exports
Business services Metals 0,71 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Business services Metals 1 Intermediate imports for exports
Business services Non-metallic minerals 3,38 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Business services Non-metallic minerals 3,29 Intermediate imports for exports
Other sectors Biomass 14,97 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Other sectors Biomass 11,32 Intermediate imports for exports
Other sectors Fossil fuels 17,55 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Other sectors Fossil fuels 17,9 Intermediate imports for exports
Other sectors Metals 7,29 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Other sectors Metals 13,26 Intermediate imports for exports
Other sectors Non-metallic minerals 24,43 Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures
Other sectors Non-metallic minerals 29,86 Intermediate imports for exports

Agricultural products and food products define the footprint of intermediate imports, but most are destined for exports

Table 8.4.4 shows that the material footprint of intermediate imports broken down by raw material is dominated by imports of one or two product categories. However, there are some differences between the use of raw materials for intermediate imports for exports and for domestic expenditures. The biomass footprint is mainly caused by imports of agricultural and food products, with a large share of both being used for exports. Imports of wood and wood products are more likely to be for domestic expenditures, but only account for a small part of the biomass footprint. The crude oil and natural gas product category dominates the fossil fuels footprint; most are used for exports.

10% of raw materials came from Russia in 2021

A large proportion of the metals used for intermediate imports for exports consist of imported metal ores. Metals imported for domestic expenditure, for example by the construction sector and the building materials industry, are more likely to be in primary form, whereas domestic consumption accounts for a greater share of imports of non-metallic minerals (other than crude oil, natural gas and metals).

8.4.4Material footprint of imported intermediates, by product category
Product category Total usage Share For exports For domestic expenditures
Raw material Mt % Mt Mt
Biomass Agricultural products 80 48 58 22
Biomass Food products 52 32 40 12
Biomass Wood, excl. furniture 8 5 6 2
Biomass Chemical products 4 3 2 3
Fossil fuels Crude oil and natural gas 18 5 11 7
Fossil fuels Other mining and quarrying products 282 77 223 59
Fossil fuels Coking coal and refined petroleum products 15 4 12 3
Fossil fuels Chemical products 10 3 8 2
Metals Metal ores 24 37 21 3
Metals Primary metals 4 6 3 1
Metals Computers and electronics 8 13 5 4
Metals Electronic equipment 5 8 3 3
Non-metallic minerals Other mining and quarrying products 100 47 30 71
Non-metallic minerals Other non-metallic minerals 12 6 10 3
Non-metallic minerals Primary metals 18 9 4 14
Non-metallic minerals Computers and electronics 13 6 8 5

Source:CBS, PBL (2025)

40% of material footprint imports for re-export consists of fossil fuels

In 2021, a total of 651 megatonnes of raw materials were required for imports for re-export. However, the largest part of this consisted of fossil fuels – 263 megatonnes, representing 40%.

Nearly 21% of the material footprint came from fossil fuels from Russia (see Figure 8.4.5), approximately the same as in 2020. In 2022 a major decline was seen in imports of fossil fuels from Russia, which was true for the whole of Europe (Eurostat, 2025). This means that the consequences of the sanctions against Russia following the invasion of Ukraine are not yet visible in this chapter.

After Russia, China and Germany supply the most raw materials for imports for re-export, which was also the case 2020. China supplies a significant share of all types of raw materials, the largest being non-metallic minerals. Germany also primarily supplies non-metallic minerals. The US, the UK and Norway mainly contribute fossil fuels. After Germany, the largest biomass footprint of imports for re-export lies in Brazil.

8.4.5 Raw material footprint imports for re-exports, top 10 countries, 2021
Country Raw material Share
Belgium Biomass 2,01
Belgium Fossil fuels 0
Belgium Metals 0
Belgium Non-metallic minerals 2,56
Brazil Biomass 4,14
Brazil Fossil fuels 0,59
Brazil Metals 1,64
Brazil Non-metallic minerals 0,78
Canada Biomass 0,29
Canada Fossil fuels 2,71
Canada Metals 0,82
Canada Non-metallic minerals 0,79
China Biomass 1,56
China Fossil fuels 4,47
China Metals 2,75
China Non-metallic minerals 6,86
Germany Biomass 4,63
Germany Fossil fuels 2,13
Germany Metals 0
Germany Non-metallic minerals 5,97
UK Biomass 0,51
UK Fossil fuels 9,3
UK Metals 0,01
UK Non-metallic minerals 0,56
India Biomass 1,99
India Fossil fuels 0,54
India Metals 0,34
India Non-metallic minerals 2,76
Norway Biomass 0,05
Norway Fossil fuels 6,95
Norway Metals 0,01
Norway Non-metallic minerals 0,22
Russia Biomass 0,44
Russia Fossil fuels 20,73
Russia Metals 0,73
Russia Non-metallic minerals 1,01
US Biomass 1,44
US Fossil fuels 4,89
US Metals 1,6
US Non-metallic minerals 1,24

8.5Greenhouse gas footprint of imports

This section discusses the greenhouse gas footprint of imports in more detail. This footprint includes total emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) released throughout the entire chain of a product until it is imported into the Netherlands. In order to be able to calculate the greenhouse effect of these gases, the emissions of these gases are expressed in CO2 equivalents. 1 kg of CO2 equivalents corresponds to the effect of 1 kg of CO2 emissions. The emission of 1 kg of nitrous oxide (N2O) corresponds to 265 kg of CO2 equivalents, and the emission of 1 kg of methane (CH4) corresponds to 28 kg of CO2 equivalents.

The greenhouse gas footprint of total Dutch consumption in 2021 is estimated at 230 million megatonnes of CO2 equivalents, of which approximately half are emitted in the Netherlands (CLO, 2025c). The total greenhouse gas footprint of Dutch imports in 2021 was 501 megatonnes of CO2 equivalents, the same as in 2020. Imports directly for domestic expenditures had a greenhouse gas footprint of 130 megatonnes of CO2 equivalentsnoot3, slightly more than the 126 megatonnes of CO2 equivalents in 2020. The greenhouse gas footprint of imports directly for domestic expenditures has therefore increased slightly and that of imports for re-export or processed into export products has declined slightly. Figure 8.5.1 shows that most of this footprint consists of CO2 emissions.

8.5.1 Greenhouse gas footprint of Dutch imports, by usage, 2021 (Mt CO₂ eq.)
Voetafdruk Imports directly for domestic expenditures Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures Intermediate imports for exports Imports for re-exports
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) 34 41 85 122
Nitrous oxide (N₂O) 7 7 20 25
Methane (CH₄) 12 13 30 41
CO₂ from biomass
as an energy source		 7 8 19 29

Agricultural products and food products account for nearly a quarter of greenhouse gas footprint of Dutch imports for direct domestic expenditures

Imports that remain in the Netherlands consist of imports for direct domestic expenditures and intermediate imports for domestic expenditures. Figure 8.5.2 shows the six product categories with the largest greenhouse gas footprint within this import category. Taken together, imports of agricultural products (12%) and food products (10%) have nearly a quarter of this footprint. Emissions from the production of agricultural products are distributed across many different countries, of which Germany (for example fruit and cereals), Brazil (especially soya and maize) and South Africa (for example grapes and flowers) are the largest. The greenhouse gas footprint of the production of food products is also highly distributed. Again, Germany (primarily livestock farming) and Brazil (mainly soya) are the largest. More than half the greenhouse gas footprint of imports of computers and electronic products lies in China and is therefore less distributed than that of the other product categories.

8.5.2 Greenhouse gas footprint of Dutch imports for direct domestic expenditures, by product group, country and usage, 2021 ( Mt CO₂ eq.)
Product en gebruik Other China Germany Russia US India
Agricultural products . . . . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 5.869 0.088 0.527 0.044 0.076 0.09
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 8.207 0.237 0.431 0.055 0.144 0.181
Food products . . . . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 3.468 0.23 0.515 0.107 0.199 0.126
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 6.152 0.324 0.889 0.179 0.445 0.343
Computers and electronics . . . . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 0.757 1.185 0.064 0.057 0.066 0.053
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 2.031 3.771 0.102 0.147 0.163 0.128
Primary metals . . . . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 4.186 0.391 0.97 0.671 0.129 0.161
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 0.181 0.017 0.078 0.021 0.007 0.004
Chemical products . . . . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 2.716 0.407 0.329 0.33 0.211 0.146
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 1.574 0.231 0.201 0.116 0.121 0.063
Motor vehicles etc. . . . . . .
Intermediate imports for domestic expenditures 0.488 0.184 0.102 0.044 0.036 0.032
Imports directly for domestic expenditures 2.627 0.959 0.742 0.262 0.206 0.154
13% of the greenhouse gas footprint of Dutch imports is emitted in China

China has largest share of greenhouse gas footprint of Dutch imports

The greenhouse gas footprint is highly distributed between the different countries, as shown in Figure 8.5.2. The country with the largest share of the greenhouse gas footprint of Dutch imports is China: 13% is emitted there (see Table 8.5.3). Approximately 70% of this greenhouse gas footprint in China comes from products that ultimately leave the Netherlands again as re-exports or processed into export products. For Russia, that proportion is 80%. Russia is the source of many mineral fuels used in Dutch production. 81% of the greenhouse gas footprint in Brazil actually comes from products that ultimately leave the Netherlands again. Large quantities of mangoes, limes, grapes and soya (and soya products) are imported from Brazil before leaving the Netherlands again as re-exports. The greenhouse gas footprint of intermediate imports from Brazil that are used for exports is primarily caused by soybeans and derived products. These are processed by the oils and fats industry and the feed industry.

8.5.3Greenhouse gas footprint of Dutch imports, top 10 countries by emissions, 2021
Total Share Imports directly for domestic expenditures Intermediate imports Imports for re-export
for exports for domestic expenditures
Mt CO2 eq. % Mt CO₂ eq.
China 68 13 13 8 14 33
Russia 37 7 2 5 15 15
Germany 32 6 4 6 10 12
US 25 5 3 4 9 11
Brazil 19 4 2 2 8 7
India 16 3 3 2 4 7
Belgium 15 3 2 3 5 5
Poland 13 3 2 2 4 5
France 12 2 1 2 5 4
Indonesia 10 2 1 1 3 4

Source:CBS, PBL (2025)

Intermediate imports for the food, beverages and tobacco industry have the largest greenhouse gas footprint

For the ten industries with the largest greenhouse gas footprint of intermediate imports, Figure 8.5.4 shows the distribution of that footprint by the ten product categories with the largest greenhouse gas footprint. Intermediate imports by those industries account for nearly 70% of the total greenhouse gas footprint of intermediate imports, three-quarters of that of production for exports and 57% of that of production for domestic expenditures.

Intermediate imports for the food, beverages and tobacco industry have the largest greenhouse gas footprint, primarily due to imports of agricultural products and food products, followed by the oil-refining industry, the chemical industry and construction. Imports for production for domestic expenditures by the construction industry have a relatively large greenhouse gas footprint; conversely, the Dutch chemical industry has a relatively large greenhouse gas footprint of imports processed for exports.

8.5.4 Greenhouse gas footprint import of intermediates, top 10 industries and products, 2021
Product group Sector Use Footprint
Agricultural products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 18,55
Crude oil and natural gas Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,1
Food products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 12,56
Paper and paper products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,49
Cokes and refined petroleum products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,01
Chemical products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,09
Metals in primary form Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Computers and electronics Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,02
Electrical equipment Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,01
Road transport Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,14
Crude oil and natural gas Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor export 17,28
Food products Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,25
Paper and paper products Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Cokes and refined petroleum products Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor export 5
Chemical products Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,16
Computers and electronics Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Electrical equipment Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Road transport Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,05
Agricultural products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Crude oil and natural gas Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 1,2
Food products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,22
Paper and paper products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,4
Cokes and refined petroleum products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 1,43
Chemical products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 17,23
Metals in primary form Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,09
Computers and electronics Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,01
Electrical equipment Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Road transport Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,1
Paper and paper products Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,03
Cokes and refined petroleum products Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,05
Chemical products Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,05
Metals in primary form Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor export 2,55
Computers and electronics Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,02
Electrical equipment Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,06
Road transport Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,03
Paper and paper products Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,07
Cokes and refined petroleum products Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,01
Chemical products Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,03
Metals in primary form Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor export 1,36
Computers and electronics Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,31
Electrical equipment Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,23
Road transport Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,07
Crude oil and natural gas Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,87
Food products Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,01
Paper and paper products Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,01
Cokes and refined petroleum products Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,06
Chemical products Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,03
Computers and electronics Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Electrical equipment Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Road transport Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Crude oil and natural gas Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Paper and paper products Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Cokes and refined petroleum products Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,04
Chemical products Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,03
Metals in primary form Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,24
Computers and electronics Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,05
Electrical equipment Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,11
Road transport Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,02
Food products Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0
Agricultural products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,23
Crude oil and natural gas Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,05
Food products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,25
Paper and paper products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,16
Cokes and refined petroleum products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,07
Chemical products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,04
Metals in primary form Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,28
Computers and electronics Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,22
Electrical equipment Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,08
Road transport Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,47
Paper and paper products Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,02
Cokes and refined petroleum products Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor export 5,25
Computers and electronics Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,05
Electrical equipment Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,02
Road transport Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor export 3,47
Crude oil and natural gas Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,01
Crude oil and natural gas Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,03
Paper and paper products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,13
Cokes and refined petroleum products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,09
Computers and electronics Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,14
Electrical equipment Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,06
Road transport Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,03
Food products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 1,09
Chemical products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,22
Metals in primary form Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,02
Agricultural products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,05
Other Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor export 3,52
Other Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,09
Other Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor export 1,16
Other Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,48
Other Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor export 2,69
Other Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor export 2,31
Other Construction Intermediaire invoer voor export 0,71
Other Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor export 3,13
Other Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor export 4,38
Other Business services Intermediaire invoer voor export 5,43
Agricultural products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 4,9
Crude oil and natural gas Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,04
Food products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 2,57
Paper and paper products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,16
Cokes and refined petroleum products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Chemical products Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,04
Metals in primary form Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Computers and electronics Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Electrical equipment Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Road transport Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,05
Crude oil and natural gas Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 3,14
Food products Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,04
Paper and paper products Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Cokes and refined petroleum products Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,91
Chemical products Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,03
Computers and electronics Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Electrical equipment Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Road transport Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Agricultural products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Crude oil and natural gas Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,1
Food products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Paper and paper products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,04
Cokes and refined petroleum products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,1
Chemical products Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 1,37
Metals in primary form Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Computers and electronics Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Electrical equipment Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Road transport Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Paper and paper products Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Cokes and refined petroleum products Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,04
Chemical products Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,04
Metals in primary form Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 2,1
Computers and electronics Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Electrical equipment Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,06
Road transport Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Paper and paper products Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Cokes and refined petroleum products Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Chemical products Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Metals in primary form Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,34
Computers and electronics Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,08
Electrical equipment Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,06
Road transport Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Crude oil and natural gas Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,81
Food products Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Paper and paper products Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Cokes and refined petroleum products Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,06
Chemical products Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,03
Computers and electronics Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Electrical equipment Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Road transport Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0
Crude oil and natural gas Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,03
Paper and paper products Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,04
Cokes and refined petroleum products Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,28
Chemical products Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,33
Metals in primary form Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 2,43
Computers and electronics Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,47
Electrical equipment Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 1,27
Road transport Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,25
Food products Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Agricultural products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,12
Crude oil and natural gas Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,03
Food products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,13
Paper and paper products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,08
Cokes and refined petroleum products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,04
Chemical products Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Metals in primary form Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,14
Computers and electronics Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,1
Electrical equipment Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,04
Road transport Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,22
Paper and paper products Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Cokes and refined petroleum products Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 1,25
Computers and electronics Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Electrical equipment Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Road transport Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 1,03
Crude oil and natural gas Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,01
Crude oil and natural gas Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,03
Paper and paper products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,08
Cokes and refined petroleum products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,09
Computers and electronics Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,17
Electrical equipment Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,14
Road transport Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Food products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,3
Chemical products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,31
Metals in primary form Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Agricultural products Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,19
Other Food, beverages and tobacco Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,72
Other Crude oil Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,02
Other Chemical Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,1
Other Metal products Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,4
Other Machinery Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 0,68
Other Energy supply Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 2,17
Other Construction Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 7,07
Other Wholesale trade and commision trade Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 1,54
Other Transportation and storage Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 1,06
Other Business services Intermediaire invoer voor binnenland 2,42

Fastest rise in greenhouse gas footprint of imports of chemical products for re-export

Imports of agricultural products have the largest share of the greenhouse gas footprint of imports for re-export, closely followed by imports of chemical products; see Figure 8.5.5. The share of agricultural products in the greenhouse gas footprint of imports for re-export stood at 21.4% in 2020. This is because fewer agricultural products were imported for re-export. The greenhouse gas footprint of imports of chemical products for re-export increased. This is due to an increase in imports of synthetic fuels and disinfectants for re-export. This was also the second largest product category in terms of the greenhouse gas footprint of imports for re-export in 2020, when it totalled 32.3 megatonnes of CO2 equivalents. The total greenhouse gas footprint of imports for re-export fell compared to 2020, as it did for most product categories. Imports of chemical products are an exception.

8.5.5 G r e e n h o u s e g a s f o o t p r i n t f o r r e- e xp o r t s , b y p r o d u c t g r o u p a n d co u n tr y , 2021
8.5.5 Greenhouse gas footprint for re-exports, by product group and country, 2021
Product group Country Share Footprint
Chemical products Belgium 16,38 1,69
Chemical products Brazil 16,38 0,67
Chemical products China 16,38 4,15
Chemical products Germany 16,38 1,98
Chemical products Indonesia 16,38 2,11
Chemical products India 16,38 1,49
Chemical products Poland 16,38 0,93
Chemical products Russia 16,38 2,58
Chemical products US 16,38 2,72
Chemical products South Africa 16,38 0,33
Chemical products Other 16,38 16,9
Cokes and refined petroleum products Belgium 7,68 0,49
Cokes and refined petroleum products Brazil 7,68 0,19
Cokes and refined petroleum products China 7,68 0,55
Cokes and refined petroleum products Germany 7,68 0,94
Cokes and refined petroleum products Indonesia 7,68 0,2
Cokes and refined petroleum products India 7,68 0,26
Cokes and refined petroleum products Poland 7,68 0,17
Cokes and refined petroleum products Russia 7,68 1,51
Cokes and refined petroleum products US 7,68 0,5
Cokes and refined petroleum products South Africa 7,68 0,2
Cokes and refined petroleum products Other 7,68 11,67
Computers and electronics Belgium 7,14 0,04
Computers and electronics Brazil 7,14 0,18
Computers and electronics China 7,14 8,82
Computers and electronics Germany 7,14 0,38
Computers and electronics Indonesia 7,14 0,26
Computers and electronics India 7,14 0,32
Computers and electronics Poland 7,14 0,16
Computers and electronics Russia 7,14 0,37
Computers and electronics US 7,14 0,44
Computers and electronics South Africa 7,14 0,1
Computers and electronics Other 7,14 4,41
Agricultural products Belgium 16,79 1,17
Agricultural products Brazil 16,79 2,47
Agricultural products China 16,79 0,65
Agricultural products Germany 16,79 1,69
Agricultural products Indonesia 16,79 0,19
Agricultural products India 16,79 0,83
Agricultural products Poland 16,79 0,82
Agricultural products Russia 16,79 0,19
Agricultural products US 16,79 0,39
Agricultural products South Africa 16,79 2,79
Agricultural products Other 16,79 25,27
Crude oil and natural gas Belgium 6,88 0,01
Crude oil and natural gas Brazil 6,88 0,18
Crude oil and natural gas China 6,88 0,26
Crude oil and natural gas Germany 6,88 0,66
Crude oil and natural gas Indonesia 6,88 0,02
Crude oil and natural gas India 6,88 0,06
Crude oil and natural gas Poland 6,88 0,03
Crude oil and natural gas Russia 6,88 5,1
Crude oil and natural gas US 6,88 0,74
Crude oil and natural gas South Africa 6,88 0,02
Crude oil and natural gas Other 6,88 7,84
Food products Belgium 7,71 0,77
Food products Brazil 7,71 1,71
Food products China 7,71 0,7
Food products Germany 7,71 1,34
Food products Indonesia 7,71 0,27
Food products India 7,71 0,56
Food products Poland 7,71 0,83
Food products Russia 7,71 0,4
Food products US 7,71 0,63
Food products South Africa 7,71 0,14
Food products Other 7,71 9,39

8.6References

Open references

References

Aerts, N., Bohn, T., Creemers, S., Notten, T., & Weusten, M. (2023). Use of imports in the Dutch economy. In S. Creemers & D. Herbers (Eds.), Dutch Trade in Facts and Figures: Exports, imports & investment. Statistics Netherlands.

Aerts, N., & Weijers, S. (2024). Footprint of Dutch imports. In S. Creemers, M. Houben-van Herten & R. Voncken (Reds.), Dutch Trade in Facts and Figures: Exports, imports & investment. Statistics Netherlands.

CBS (2022a, 9 March). 87 percent of imports from Russia are mineral fuels. Statistics Netherlands.

CBS (2022b, 7 July). The Netherlands largest EU importer of Brazilian agricultural goods. Statistics Netherlands.

CBS (2023, 3 October). More goods unloaded in Dutch seaports, inbound cargo from Russia decreasing. Statistics Netherlands

CBS (2024). Groeiend naar een groene economie? Achtergrondreportage bij de materiaalmonitor. Statistics Netherlands.

CBS (2025). International trade; import and export value, SITC (3 digits), 2012–2022. [Dataset]. Accessed on 6 June 2025.

CBS (2025a). GDP, output and expenditures; changes, quarterly, National Accounts. [Dataset]. Accessed on 6 June 2025.

CLO (2025a). Nederlandse landvoetafdrukken, 2010–2021 (indicator 3018, version 01, 20 February 2025). Statistics Netherlands, PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, and Wageningen University and Research.

CLO (2025b). Grondstofvoetafdrukken Nederland, 2010–2021 (indicator 3016, version 01, 20 February 2025). Statistics Netherlands, PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, and Wageningen University and Research.

CLO (2025c). Broeikasgasvoetafdrukken Nederland, 2010–2021 (indicator 0603, version 05, 10 February 2025). Statistics Netherlands, PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, and Wageningen University and Research.

Eurostat (2023). Wood products – production and trade. Eurostat. Accessed on 6 June 2025.

Eurostat (2025). EU trade with Russia – latest developments. Eurostat. Accessed on 2 June 2025.

In ’t Veld, D. (2025). PBL-FIGARO 2021. Version: March 2025. [Unpublished dataset]. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency.

Navarre, N., Schrama, M., de Vos, C., & Mogollón, J. M. (2023). Interventions for sourcing EAT-Lancet diets within national agricultural areas: A global analysis. One Earth, 6(2), 182.

Reis, T., & Prada Moro, Y. (2022). Connecting exports of Brazilian soy to deforestation. Trase. Accessed on 6 June 2025.

Trading Economics (2025a). Soybeans – Price – Chart – Historical Data – News. Accessed on 20 May 2025.

Trading Economics (2025b). Wheat – Price – Chart – Historical Data – News. Accessed on 20 May 2025.

USDA (2025). Brazil soybean production. United States department of agriculture. Accessed on 30 May 2025.

USGS (2023). Mineral commodity summaries 2023. U.S. Geological Survey. Accessed on 30 May 2025.

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Noten

Generally speaking, the inclusion of more countries in a dataset leads to greater unreliability: not all countries report the land use of different sectors in detail, or even total production per sector.

1 megatonne is equal to 1 billion kilograms.

This deviates from the values in CLO (2025c) because this publication is based on more recent data.

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Contributors

Authors

Nieke Aerts

Arjen Berkenbos (DNB)

Melle Bijlsma (DNB)

Timon Bohn

Sarah Creemers

Jurriaan Eggelte (DNB)

Robin Konietzny

Dio Limpens

Tom Notten

Shalane Pijnenburg

Mauro Pinna

Leen Prenen

Pascal Ramaekers

Janneke Rooyakkers

Anne Maaike Stienstra (DNB)

Fons Verkerk (DNB)

Christiaan Visser

Roger Voncken

Manon Weusten

Editorial team

Sarah Creemers

Janneke Rooyakkers

Roger Voncken

Editors in chief

Sarah Creemers

Roger Voncken

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the following persons for their constructive contributions to this edition of Dutch Trade in Facts and Figures:

Deirdre Bosch

Anniek Erkens

Loe Franssen

Jan-Pieter Heijmans

Marjolijn Jaarsma

Tim Peeters

Davey Poulissen

Stef Weijers

CBS CCN Logistiek

CBS CCN Redactie en Visualisatie

Translation:

Taalcentrum VU

CBS Vertaalbureau

We would also like to thank the following members of staff at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for their feedback on a draft version of Dutch Trade in Facts and Figures:

Jan Pieter Barendse

Diederik Berghuijs

Vasant Bhoendi

Tom Harmsen

Jeroen Jacobs

Ries Kamphof

Judith Kikkert

Harry Oldersma