International trade in goods: composition and geography
This chapter deals with the composition and geographical dimension of the Dutch goods trade. What did the trade portfolio of the Netherlands look like in 2022? Which goods saw falls in imports and exports and which experienced rises, compared with previous years? What are the main countries of origin and destination for Dutch trade in goods? How important is the Netherlands for the goods trade of all other countries in the world? How is the Dutch market share in global trade developing? In this chapter, we answer these and many other questions by analysing the composition and geographical dimension of Dutch goods exports and imports.
3.1Key findings
Dutch goods exports in 2022
- In 2022, Dutch goods exports increased by 30.4% to €731.4bn. The increase in export volume was 2.3% compared to 2021. This indicates significantly higher export prices.
- The value of Dutch re-exports grew more rapidly than domestic exports in 2022. This was due to a relatively large increase in re-exports of mineral fuels.
- In exports to continents, the proportions remain stable every year. European countries remain by far the most important export destination with 78% of export value. Germany, Belgium and France were the main destinations for Dutch goods exports in 2022 (Figure 3.1.1).
- More than half (55%) of Dutch goods exports are destined for the five largest export partners: Germany, Belgium, France, the UK and the US. Germany is the largest export destination in every product category, with a particularly large share for mineral fuels.
- Two-thirds of the exported transport equipment consisted of domestic exports. In addition, more than half of the exported chemical products, mineral fuels, food and beverages, and raw materials were domestically produced. In exports of machinery and equipment and of manufactured goods, over 60% of the value concerned re-exported goods. Goods exports to other EU countries are mostly re-exports; goods exported to the UK, the US, China, Taiwan, and South Korea are mainly domestically produced.
- Petroleum products form the largest group of export goods, followed by natural gas, telephones, modems and routers, and machinery and appliances.
Dutch goods imports in 2022
- In 2022, total goods imports rose by 36.8% year on year to more than €677bn. The import volume rose much less strongly, by 2.3%.
- The main countries of origin in Dutch goods imports are European. The relative importance of the US as a country of origin has increased, due to more import of natural gas (LNG). Russia’s relatively much weaker position as a supplier since the war in Ukraine has paved the way for other countries.
- Slightly less than half (49%) of Dutch imports come from the five largest import partners: Germany, Belgium, China, the US and the UK (Figure 3.1.1).
- The largest import commodity groups are natural gas, crude oil and petroleum products. The value of these product groups has grown enormously relative to 2019, in particular due to price increases. In addition, most of the consumer electronics (telephones, modems, computers, laptops and tablets) are imported, some of which is (re)exported.
Importance of the Netherlands in world exports and imports
- In 2021, the Netherlands accounted for 3.1% of world exports. In ranking order, the Netherlands was the sixth largest exporter in the world. Since 2015, the Dutch share has grown by 0.3 percentage point in the global export market of goods.
- In 2021, the Netherlands was the eighth largest importer of goods worldwide, after the US, China, Germany, Japan, France, Hong Kong and the UK. In 2021, the Netherlands contributed 3.2% to global goods imports. The Dutch contribution to world imports decreased by 1.1 percentage points between 1970 and 2021.
How important is the Netherlands as a trading partner for other economies?
- The Dutch share in Belgian goods imports amounted to 18% in 2021, making Belgium the country most dependent on goods from the Netherlands (Figure 3.1.1). For Germany, the Netherlands is the second most important supplier of goods. The Dutch share in British goods imports was about 0.9 percentage points lower in 2021 than in 2019. The Netherlands did have a larger share in Polish and Taiwanese goods imports in 2021.
- The Netherlands is also important for many countries as an importer of goods, for example, Iceland, Belgium, and Ivory Coast (Figure 3.1.1). In 2021, 12.4% of all Belgian goods exports were destined for the Netherlands. This made the Netherlands the third export destination for Belgium. The Dutch share in Norwegian and Russian goods exports shrank in 2021. The Netherlands did have a larger share in Hong Kong’s and Ukraine’s goods exports in 2021.
Recalculation of CBS figures on international trade in goods
From the beginning of 2023, CBS has published tables on StatLine covering the international trade in goods according to two different methods:
- Change of ownership: goods transactions in which a Dutch enterprise or person transfers the economic ownership of the goods to a foreign enterprise or person, and vice versa.
- Border crossing: goods movements whereby the goods physically cross the Dutch national border without always involving a change of ownership.
Due to a redesign of the International Trade in Goods statistics as of 2021, there is revised methodology in the series for the international trade in goods. For the figures according to border crossing, this change means that imports for 2021 are some €5 billion higher and exports around €1 billion lower than according to the old method. In addition, a larger share of the trade value is attributed to quasi-transit trade than before. On the imports side, quasi-transit trade has been revised upwards by €23 billion and on the exports side by €32 billion for 2021. For the figures according to change of ownership, this methodology change means that imports in 2021 are some €10 billion lower and exports around €1 billion higher. Due to the revision, the 2021 figures are not easily comparable to the 2020 figures (see also CBS, 2023a).
Two separate time series have therefore emerged. To be able to show a consistent development over a longer period, a recalculated time series was created for this publication. In this chapter, the principle of border crossing is applied. It is possible to produce this recalculated series because figures for 2021 are available according to both the old and the new method. In this way, the trend-based developments from old years are linked to the values from the years with a new method. This time series is not published on StatLine, but is only used in publications where time series are wanted in order to analyse multi-annual developments.
Outline
This chapter considers both the composition and geographical dimension of the Dutch goods trade. In sections 3.2 to 3.4, we look at these from a Dutch perspective. In section 3.2, we describe the key developments (in terms of value and volume) of the Dutch trade in goods, based on CBS figures. We also describe the importance of the different continents for the Dutch goods trade. Dutch exports of goods are discussed in more detail in section 3.3. What is the composition of Dutch exports? Which countries are major destinations for Dutch goods exports? Section 3.4 gives details on Dutch goods imports. In sections 3.5 to 3.6, the roles are reversed and we look at the Dutch goods trade from the perspective of the rest of the world, using CEPII data.noot1 The importance of the Netherlands as a supplier and customer of goods to other countries is addressed in section 3.5 and 3.6.
3.2Key developments in Dutch goods trade
Rise in goods exports continues in 2022
The Netherlands exported €731.4 billion worth of goods in 2022. Figure 3.2.1 shows the ratio of domestic goods exports to re-exports. Re-exports consist of goods imported by the Netherlands and then re-exported after virtually no processing. It is important that the goods have been under Dutch ownership. Logically, the Netherlands earns less from re-exports of goods than it earns from domestic goods exports, as enterprises add little value in the case of re-exports. Chapter 6 of this publication shows that, on average, the Netherlands earned 12 cents for every euro of re-exports in 2021; in the case of domestic exports, the figure was 55 cents per euro. Of the total export value in 2022, re-exports accounted for 50.4%. The remaining 49.6% consisted of domestic exports. This means that for the first time, re-exports exceeded domestic exports. Up to and including 2021, domestic exports made up the largest share, although the percentages became closer year by year.
| Jaar | Domestic exports | Re-exports |
|---|---|---|
| 2022* | 363.1 | 368.3 |
| 2021* | 289.3 | 271.7 |
| 2019 | 261.6 | 233.4 |
| 2015 | 220.8 | 185.1 |
The value of re-exports rose by 36% in 2022, while that of domestic exports went up by 26%. The reason for the larger increase in the value of re-exports is that there was a relatively strong rise in re-exports of mineral fuels. Compared to the average of 2015–2021, the share of re-exports represented by mineral fuels rose by 10 percentage points in 2022. For the smaller product category transport equipment, re-exports also increased, by 5 percentage points.
Increase in value of exports much greater than volume development
The outbreak of war in Ukraine in February 2022 and the subsequent sanctions against Russia triggered unprecedented price rises in virtually all product categories, but especially in food products and mineral fuels. Moreover, the lifting of COVID-19 restrictions worldwide led to increasing demand, while value chains were still disrupted by lockdowns, chip shortages and sky-high container prices. The war and the higher demand for goods affected the year-on-year development of exports. The value of exports rose by 30.4% to €731 billion between 2021 and 2022. In the period 2015–2022, the export value rose faster than ever before. In the years 2019–2022, with 2019 as the last pre-pandemic year, the absolute export value increased by 47.8%, while the rise in the volume of goods exports was 8.8%. Figure 3.2.2 shows that the volume rise in 2022 was significantly smaller than the rise in value, which indicates sharply higher export prices. Nevertheless, 2022 exports were still 2.3% higher in volume than in 2021.
| Jaar | Value | Volume |
|---|---|---|
| 2016 | 0.6 | 4.4 |
| 2017 | 10.2 | 6.0 |
| 2018 | 6.7 | 3.1 |
| 2019 | 3.1 | 1.3 |
| 2020 | -7.4 | -2.1 |
| 2021* | 22.4 | 8.6 |
| 2022* | 30.4 | 2.3 |
We can take natural gas as an example of the extreme rises in value. Between 2021 and 2022, the export value of natural gas shot up by no less than 232%. Other product groups also saw a major rise in export value. For example, the value of cheese and curd jumped by 36% and that of exports of passenger cars added 34% to total €6.0 billion. The price rise in mineral fuels was one factor that put pressure on the production of other goods, such as products from the greenhouse growing sector and mineral fertilisers. These energy-intensive goods therefore saw a dramatic rise in export value in 2022. The export value of mineral fertilisers, for instance, jumped by 57% in 2022 compared to 2021 (CBS, 2023b). In addition, imports and exports of goods were hampered by restrictions and trade barriers (see also Chapter 2 on trade developments in relation to the sanctions against Russia).
Europe maintains its importance as export destination
Just as in all previous years, Europe continues to take by far the largest share of total goods exports from the Netherlands (Figure 3.2.3). Of the total export value in 2022, 78% concerned exports to a European country. As with exports to other continents, the proportions remain very stable from one year to another. With its major seaports and airports, the Netherlands is an important logistics hub for the goods trade to other European countries. For example, re-exports as a percentage of total exports to Germany increased from 59% in 2021 to 62% in 2022. Asia’s share as an export market for Dutch goods dipped slightly in the period 2020–2022, from 12% to 10%. As regards imports, in contrast, we see China and other South-Asian countries increasing in importance. See Figure 3.4.2 and section 3.4 for more on this subject.
| Jaar | Europe | Americas | Asia | Africa | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 314.4 | 29.9 | 45.3 | 13.8 | 2.5 |
| 2019 | 371.7 | 42.2 | 54.4 | 16.4 | 10.3 |
| 2021* | 430.5 | 44.0 | 59.5 | 16.5 | 10.5 |
| 2022* | 570.7 | 55.3 | 70.3 | 21.5 | 13.6 |
Import value rises unabated in 2022
The Netherlands also imported a record amount in 2022 in value terms. Figure 3.2.4 shows that the import value rose by nearly 37% compared to 2021, to €677 billion. The main reason for this rise was once again the sharply higher import prices. The import volume was up by 2.3% in 2022 from 2021. In the period 2019–2022, with 2019 as the last pre-pandemic year, the import value increased by 55.8%, while the volume rise was 8.4%. Moreover, the rise in the import value (36.8%) exceeded the rise in the export value (30.4%).
| Jaar | Value | Volume |
|---|---|---|
| 2016 | -1.4 | 5.4 |
| 2017 | 10.1 | 5.7 |
| 2018 | 8.1 | 4 |
| 2019 | 3.9 | 5.2 |
| 2020 | -8.8 | -2.5 |
| 2021* | 24.8 | 8.7 |
| 2022* | 36.8 | 2.3 |
Importance of North America rises as origin of goods imports
In 2022, European countries were again the main countries of origin for Dutch goods imports (Figure 3.2.5). However, due to the sharp rises in the import value of mineral fuels, which were more often imported from other regions as a result of the war between Russia and Ukraine, Europe’s significance as a region of origin did diminish slightly, from 64% in 2021 to 60% in 2022. Before the start of the war in Ukraine, between 2015 and 2021, an average of 28.5% of all natural gas and crude oil was imported from Russia. The United States has now taken over this import flow to a great extent, gaining a relatively large amount in terms of import share. Before 2021, the Netherlands imported no liquid natural gas (LNG) from the US. Partly due to the substantial price rises, LNG was the most important product group originating from the US in 2022 (see also Lalkens & van Dijk, 2023).
Asia’s share in Dutch goods imports was steady in the period 2015–2022. However, there were major differences between countries. For example, China’s share as a country of origin for the import value of the Netherlands rose from 8.2% to 9.5% between 2015 and 2022. Japan experienced a fall from 1.9% of total import value in 2015 to 1.3% in 2022. For an extensive analysis of the Dutch trade with China, we refer to Chapter 2 of this publication. The development of the main export and import partners is described in sections 3.3 and 3.4.
Africa’s position was also relatively more important in 2022 than in previous years. For example, the import share of the two most important African trading partners increased from 2021, with Angola’s share advancing by 0.7 percentage points and Nigeria’s by 0.2 percentage points. The development of Angola is particularly striking. Whereas no LNG was imported from Angola before 2021, the country was the seventh-largest import partner for that fuel in 2022, with a value of €2.9 billion. The decline of the relative position of Russia in the European gas and oil market has paved the way for other players (see also Lalkens & van Dijk, 2023; NOS Nieuws, 2022).
| Jaar | Europe | Americas | Asia | Africa | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 228.6 | 39.2 | 75.6 | 11.6 | 1.3 |
| 2019 | 273.0 | 49.6 | 94.0 | 12.1 | 5.7 |
| 2021* | 316.4 | 56.7 | 103.1 | 12.8 | 5.5 |
| 2022* | 408.3 | 85.7 | 150.0 | 25.5 | 7.2 |
3.3Dutch exports of goods in detail
Exports of mineral fuels double in relation to 2021
Dutch goods exports were worth €731 billion in 2022 – a 30.4% increase compared to 2021. A key explanation for this rise in value is the increase in the prices of mineral fuels. Partly as a result of this, mineral fuels were the most important product category for exports in 2022 (Figure 3.3.1). In 2021, mineral fuel exports were worth €79.4 billion, accounting for 14% of total export value. In 2022, this had risen to €161.1 billion and mineral fuels were the largest export category, with a 22% share. In the period 2015–2021, machinery and equipment were still the main group of export products. In addition to the sharp rise in the value of mineral fuels, all other product categories also rose in value compared to 2021.
| Productcategorie | 2022* | 2021* | 2019 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mineral fuels | 161.1 | 79.4 | 72.6 | 60.4 |
| Machinery and equipment | 147.2 | 123.7 | 113.4 | 89.1 |
| Manufactured goods | 140.6 | 118.5 | 103.0 | 81.2 |
| Chemical products | 124.4 | 102.9 | 82.0 | 70.8 |
| Food and beverages | 87.0 | 72.7 | 67.9 | 57.4 |
| Raw materials and natural products | 39.5 | 35.7 | 28.7 | 25.8 |
| Transport equipment | 31.5 | 28.0 | 27.4 | 21.1 |
Germany, Belgium and France are principal export partners
Figure 3.3.2 shows that our neighbouring countries Germany, Belgium and France have been our principal export partners for years. The relative importance of Germany increased in 2022 (22.6% in 2021; 24.5% in 2022). With a year-on-year rise of 42%, Germany saw the largest increase of the top 15 export markets. Here too, a key explanation was the price hike in mineral fuels and Germany’s large share in Dutch exports of mineral fuel in 2022. In January 2021, the price of a barrel of North Sea Brent oil was still $55.30. In June 2022, this price had soared to $116.60. Among other things, Dutch deliveries of natural gas to Germany, with the sharp price rises, were responsible for the substantial growth (CBS, 2022a). For the other two members of the top 3 trading partners, Belgium and France, the rise in export value is also explained to a large extent by the exports of mineral fuels. For all partners in the top 15, the export value rose in 2022 compared to 2021.
The United Kingdom, the fourth-largest export partner, saw a relatively minor increase of around 20%. This is partly due to the type of products that the Netherlands exports to the UK (relatively small amounts of mineral fuels), and possibly also because, since Brexit, the UK has become a less attractive trading partner for Dutch enterprises. Exports of raw materials and natural products (various products, including flowers and plants) to the UK actually declined by 2.1% compared to 2021. Re-exports and domestic exports to the UK saw a similar level of growth between 2021 and 2022. The value of exports to the US and Poland (both +27%), and Sweden (+29%) also increased substantially. Exports to China grew by just 11% between 2021 and 2022. One of the few trading partners to experience a reduction in Dutch exports in 2022 compared to the previous year was Russia. This is largely explained by the sanctions introduced in response to the war in Ukraine. Chapter 2 examines the trade relationship with Russia in more detail. In particular, exports to Russia of heavy goods vehicles and buses produced in the Netherlands declined (CBS, 2022b).
| Exportpartner | 2022* | 2021* | 2019 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 179.3 | 126.6 | 107.1 | 93.1 |
| Belgium | 88.1 | 66.9 | 56.3 | 46.8 |
| France | 59.1 | 45.3 | 38.6 | 32.0 |
| UK | 43.3 | 35.9 | 39.8 | 36.5 |
| US | 34.4 | 27.2 | 25.8 | 17.5 |
| Italy | 30.1 | 23.7 | 19.1 | 16.3 |
| Spain | 21.7 | 17.3 | 14.8 | 11.5 |
| Poland | 19.7 | 15.5 | 11.3 | 9.3 |
| Sweden | 14.8 | 11.5 | 9.4 | 7.4 |
| China | 14.6 | 13.2 | 12.1 | 8.2 |
| Taiwan | 11.3 | 9.6 | 7.9 | 2.7 |
| Denmark | 9.3 | 7.6 | 6.0 | 5.5 |
| Czech Republic | 9.1 | 7.3 | 6.4 | 5.6 |
| Austria | 8.6 | 6.9 | 6.0 | 4.7 |
| Switzerland | 8.5 | 7.4 | 6.5 | 5.3 |
More than half of exports go to top 5 trading partners
More than half (55%) of Dutch goods exports are destined for the five largest export partners: Germany, Belgium, France, the UK and the US. In mineral fuel exports, the top 5 destinations account for the largest share with 67% of total mineral fuel exports. Exports of machinery and equipment, with a 44% share, have the lowest concentration in the main markets. Just as in 2021, Germany has the highest value for each product category (Figure 3.3.3). German dominance in exports is particularly strong for mineral fuels: more than 35% of total Dutch exports of these goods go to Germany. This includes substantial re-exports of crude oiland (liquid) natural gas. Germany’s share in exports in the product categories machinery and equipment, chemical products and transport equipment also increased compared to the previous year.
| productcategorie | Germany | Belgium | France | UK | US | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mineral fuels | 57 | 28.9 | 10.9 | 5.9 | 5.3 | 53.2 |
| Machinery and equipment | 26.6 | 8.7 | 10.8 | 9.7 | 9.5 | 81.9 |
| Manufactured goods | 33.1 | 15.3 | 13.8 | 9.1 | 7 | 62.4 |
| Chemical products | 25.9 | 17 | 11.2 | 7.2 | 7.2 | 55.9 |
| Food and beverages | 20.1 | 10.6 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 2.5 | 39.7 |
| Raw materials and natural products | 10.5 | 4.9 | 2.3 | 2.5 | 1.1 | 18.1 |
| Transport equipment | 6.2 | 2.8 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 1.8 | 15.9 |
Dutch-made products make up two-thirds of transport equipment exports
When we zoom in on the largest product categories, we see in Figure 3.3.4 that there are major differences in the shares of re-exports. For example, 32% of exports of transport equipment consists of re-exports, on average. A number of goods in this product category are mainly domestic exports (goods such as boats and buses). For passenger cars, nearly half of the export value in 2022 consisted of re-exports.
Re-exports accounted for more than 60% of both machinery and equipment exports and exports of manufactured goods in 2022. The Netherlands is a key point of arrival for goods from countries around the world. Clothing, fruit, petroleum and natural gas, chips and semiconductors, and consumer electronics such as computers, telephones and modems are examples of goods that enter the Netherlands and, without significant processing, are sold abroad. This is done partly in the form of re-exports, in which Dutch enterprises are involved. When goods are imported by foreign-owned enterprises and are not processed, or only undergo minor processing, before being exported again via the Netherlands, we refer to this as quasi-transit trade. This form of international trade is outside the scope of this chapter, but the goods and trading partners that are relatively heavily involved in re-exports are generally also active in quasi-transit trade.
More than half of exports of chemical products, mineral fuels, food and beverages, and raw materials consisted of domestic goods. In the case of mineral fuels, this is mainly through exports of refined petroleum products. The Netherlands itself produces hardly any petroleum, but it does process imported crude oil on a large scale to produce fuels such as diesel, petrol and LPG, which are subsequently exported as domestic products.
| productcategorie | Re-exports | Domestic exports |
|---|---|---|
| Mineral fuels | 74.9 | 86.2 |
| Machinery and equipment | 89.7 | 57.6 |
| Manufactured goods | 88.3 | 52.3 |
| Chemical products | 60.2 | 64.2 |
| Food and beverages | 31.6 | 55.4 |
| Raw materials and natural products | 13.5 | 25.9 |
| Transport equipment | 10.0 | 21.5 |
Exports to EU countries to a great extent re-exports
Destination markets vary hugely as regards the shares of re-exports and domestic exports. For example, Figure 3.3.5 shows that exports to nearby partners in particular are largely made up of re-exports (see also CBS, 2023c for the values of re-exports and exports of domestic goods). For Germany, France, Italy and Spain, the share was more than 60% in 2022. Dutch domestic goods make up the largest share in exports to the UK, while re-exports account for 41% of total Dutch exports to the country. For the US, the share of re-exports is only 28%. For both Denmark and Sweden, it is 55%, and the share re-exports is 24% for China, 8% for Taiwan and 14% for South Korea. Distance is a major factor here: the more distance between the destination country and the Netherlands, the more illogical it is that the Netherlands should act as a trade hub for the country in question.
| land | Re-exports | Domestic exports |
|---|---|---|
| Germany | 62.3 | 37.7 |
| Belgium | 56.2 | 43.8 |
| France | 63.0 | 37.0 |
| UK | 40.6 | 59.4 |
| US | 27.6 | 72.4 |
| Italy | 63.3 | 36.7 |
| Spain | 61.0 | 39.0 |
| Poland | 60.5 | 39.5 |
| Sweden | 55.2 | 44.8 |
| China | 23.5 | 76.5 |
| Taiwan | 8.0 | 92.0 |
| South Korea | 13.8 | 86.2 |
| Denmark | 54.9 | 45.1 |
| Czech Republic | 69.1 | 30.9 |
| Austria | 65.4 | 34.6 |
Mineral fuels are a major export product
Figure 3.3.6 shows – sorted by value – the 15 most important products that the Netherlands exported in 2022, distinguishing between re-exports and domestic exports. Refined petroleum products are by far the largest export product, with an export value of more than €80 billion. The main destinations for those petroleum products are Germany, Belgium, Nigeria, the US and the UK. Machinery, prepared foodstuffs such as soups and sauces or vegetables that were exported in 2022 were mostly domestic exports. Machinery (e.g., for manufacturing microchips) were mostly exported to distant countries, with Taiwan, South Korea, China and the US being the main destinations. Vegetables go mainly to Germany, while Belgium and the UK are also important destination countries.
Relatively large shares of natural gas, but also crude oil, telephones, laptops and tablets, as well as medicaments and pharmaceutical products, are re-exports. In particular Germany, but also France and Belgium, depend partly on Dutch natural gas for their energy supply (Been & McDonald, 2022). And although the Netherlands also struggled with the high prices and reduced deliveries from Russia in 2022, we have long-term supply contracts with our neighbouring countries, so that Dutch natural gas accounted for some 20% of the export value of natural gas in 2022 (Been & McDonald, 2022). Telephones, laptops and tablets were also exported in particular to countries near the Netherlands: Germany, France, Belgium and the UK.
| goederengroep | Re-exports | Domestic exports |
|---|---|---|
| Refined petroleum products |
16.3 | 64.0 |
| Natural gas | 34.7 | 10.2 |
| (Mobile) phones, modems, routers |
22.7 | 2.4 |
| Machinery, equipment (incl. lithography machines) |
1.7 | 21.8 |
| Other chemical products | 12.4 | 6.3 |
| Medicines | 11.3 | 4.0 |
| Flowers and plants | 2.3 | 11.7 |
| Medicaments and pharmaceutical products |
9.2 | 4.2 |
| Medical instruments and devices |
11.1 | 2.2 |
| Computers, laptops, tablets | 10.6 | 2.3 |
| Manufactured goods | 9.1 | 3.3 |
| Processed foods | 2.4 | 6.7 |
| Vegetables | 2.2 | 5.5 |
| 1)Crude oil and residues of petroleum oils also belong on this list, but their value is confidential. | ||
3.4Dutch goods imports in detail
Mineral fuels are the main product category for imports
Total goods imports amounted to more than €677 billion in 2022, which was a 36.8% increase from 2021. In imports of goods, just as in exports, we can see that mineral fuels are the most important product. With a 94% rise in value, this product category saw enormous growth compared to 2021, and in 2022, it accounted for 25% of total goods imports (Figure 3.4.1). It was followed by manufactured goods with 22% and machinery and equipment with 21%. Other products from the raw materials and natural products category also rose sharply. For example, the import price of aluminium soared by 64.5% in May 2022 compared to the same month a year earlier (CBS, 2022c). At 17%, imports of transport equipment remained relatively modest.
| Productcategorie | 2022* | 2021* | 2019 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mineral fuels | 170.6 | 87.9 | 78.6 | 65.3 |
| Manufactured goods | 147.6 | 118.1 | 100.8 | 81.3 |
| Machinery and equipment | 141.3 | 113.0 | 102.7 | 83.1 |
| Chemical products | 91.6 | 70.9 | 55.4 | 47.2 |
| Food and beverages | 58.0 | 47.3 | 43.9 | 38.3 |
| Transport equipment | 35.5 | 30.5 | 31.5 | 22.9 |
| Raw materials and natural products | 32.0 | 26.8 | 21.3 | 18.4 |
Imports of mineral fuels shift from Russia to US and Norway
Germany and Belgium are our principal trading partners for exports as well as imports. However, their share in total Dutch imports fell relative to 2021 (Figure 3.4.2). Germany’s share in Dutch imports declined from 17.9% in 2021 to 15.3% in 2022. For Belgium, the share was down by 0.3 percentage points to 10.1%. The US and Norway saw their shares grow relatively strongly, by 0.9 and 0.7 percentage points, respectively. This can be explained partly by the shift in imports of mineral fuels, which previously came from Russia. Imports from Russia nevertheless also increased in 2022. The value of Dutch imports of mineral fuels from Russia fell due to the European sanctions imposed from March 2022. However, higher prices meant that the total value of imports from that country was higher in 2022 than in 2021 (CBS, 2022b).
| Importpartner | 2022* | 2021* | 2019 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 103.4 | 88.4 | 75.1 | 63.4 |
| Belgium | 68.0 | 51.4 | 44.7 | 37.3 |
| China | 64.2 | 46.0 | 37.6 | 29.1 |
| US | 57.1 | 37.1 | 34.3 | 27.1 |
| UK | 41.5 | 24.3 | 24.7 | 20.6 |
| Norway | 25.7 | 15.6 | 12.0 | 11.9 |
| France | 24.0 | 17.7 | 16.5 | 15.8 |
| Russia | 22.2 | 19.8 | 16.8 | 14.6 |
| Italy | 16.7 | 14.3 | 11.5 | 8.8 |
| Poland | 13.6 | 10.9 | 9.0 | 7.2 |
| Spain | 12.4 | 10.6 | 8.9 | 6.9 |
| Ireland | 11.0 | 8.4 | 7.3 | 4.7 |
| Sweden | 9.4 | 8.1 | 6.8 | 6.3 |
| Japan | 9.1 | 7.4 | 7.7 | 6.9 |
| Czech Republic | 8.1 | 5.6 | 5.1 | 5.1 |
Germany is largest supplier, but its share declines
Figure 3.4.3 shows that just under half (49.4%) of Dutch imports come from the five largest import partners. Germany is the main country of origin specifically for transport equipment (27%), food and beverages (19%) and chemical products (21%). Compared to 2021 (and also to 2019), however, Germany’s significance for Dutch imports has declined – a trend that has been underway for some time, as noted by Bouman (2023). The drop in Germany’s share in imports affects all product categories, but particularly manufactured goods, transport equipment and machinery and equipment. From Belgium, the Netherlands sources some 10–16% of total import value from each product category, with the exception of machinery. China is a major supplier of machinery and equipment (24%) and manufactured goods (14%), while the US was important in 2022 in particular for Dutch imports of mineral fuels (12%) and chemical products (11%). The Netherlands imports a relatively large share of mineral fuels (12%) from the UK.
| productcategorie | Germany | Belgium | China | US | UK1) | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chemical products | 19.6 | 15 | 5.2 | 9.7 | 5.1 | 53.2 |
| Manufactured goods | 26.8 | 13.8 | 20.1 | 11 | . | 87.5 |
| Raw materials and natural products | 5.6 | 3.2 | 1.1 | 1.8 | 0.7 | 62.4 |
| Machinery and equipment | 21.2 | 5.6 | 33.8 | 11.4 | 5.6 | 55.9 |
| Mineral fuels | 9.4 | 16.7 | 1.3 | 20 | 21.2 | 39.7 |
| Transport equipment | 9.6 | 4.9 | 1.6 | 1.8 | 1.8 | 18.1 |
| Food and beverages | 11.1 | 8.8 | 1.2 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 15.9 |
| 1)The 2022 figure for manufactured goods imports from the UK is confidential. | ||||||
Mineral fuels, telephones, computers and medicaments are major import products
Partly due to huge energy price rises in 2021 and 2022, the most significant import products are mineral fuels (Figure 3.4.4): natural gas (€57 billion), crude oil (€57 billion) and refined petroleum products (€38 billion). Other key import goods are telephones (€29 billion), laptops and tablets (€17 billion) and medicaments (€13 billion). These products are typically imported by Dutch enterprises and then, with little or no processing, exported abroad as re-exports, as mentioned in section 3.3 on goods exports. In 2022, the Netherlands also imported many cars (€12 billion) and car parts (€8 billion). These products also experienced price rises and increased demand, which played a major role in the high import value.
| goederengroep | 2022* | 2021* |
|---|---|---|
| Natural gas | 57.3 | 18.5 |
| Crude oil | 57.0 | 35.6 |
| Refined petroleum products | 38.0 | 23.0 |
| (Mobile) phones, modems, routers |
28.7 | 22.5 |
| Computers, laptops, tablets | 17.0 | 13.6 |
| Other chemical products | 13.7 | 11.1 |
| Medicines | 12.9 | 10.8 |
| Passenger cars | 11.6 | 9.7 |
| Medical instruments and devices |
11.2 | 8.8 |
| Medicaments and pharmaceutical products |
10.9 | 9.3 |
| Chips, semiconductor components |
10.4 | 7.0 |
| Manufactured goods | 10.0 | 7.0 |
| Car and tractor spare parts | 7.7 | 6.5 |
| Machinery and equipment (incl. lithography machines) |
7.7 | 6.8 |
| Electrical machinery, appliances and devices |
7.4 | 5.4 |
Import value of natural gas triples
Compared with 2021, the import value of natural gas in 2022 was more than 200% higher, while the import value of petroleum rose by 60% and that of petroleum products by 65%. All other products in the top 15 also grew in value relative to 2021, with price rises again playing a key role.noot2 Price hikes are responsible worldwide for a large part of total growth in the value of international trade, while volume growth is slower (UNCTAD, 2023). However, this varies considerably between industries: price rises play a bigger role in energy products, raw materials and food than, for example, in the manufacturing industry.
Important origin countries for natural gas in 2022 were Norway, the UK and the US. Russia, the US and Norway were major suppliers of petroleum, while Belgium, Germany and Russia were important for refined petroleum products. By far the largest supplier of telephones was China, followed by the Czech Republic and the US. China is also the largest supplier of laptops and tablets, before the US, Hungary and Taiwan. In 2022, the Netherlands imported medicaments and medicinal and pharmaceutical products in particular from Germany, the US, Belgium and Ireland. Germany was the most important origin country for cars and car parts, followed by Belgium and Sweden.
3.5Importance of the Netherlands as a supplier of goods to other countries
In this section, we set out what share the Netherlands has in the goods imports of other countries. In addition to the importance of the Netherlands’ role and its share in imports abroad, we also look at its ranking among the key partners for other economies.
CEPII-CHELEM data
We base the results in sections 3.5 and 3.6 on the CHELEM International Trade database of the French Centre d’Études Prospectives et d’Informations Internationales (CEPII). We use CEPII-CHELEM because of the long time series of fully harmonised and complete bilateral trade data that is available. By harmonisation we mean that trade is completely ‘squared’ in the CEPII-CHELEM data: the import of product 1 by country X from country Y is exactly the same as the export of product 1 by country Y to country X. This sounds rather obvious, but it is rarely the case in bilateral statistics. The main source of the CEPII-CHELEM database is UN COMTRADE, supplemented by data from international institutions (e.g., the IMF, the World Bank, the OECD and UNCTAD) and all kinds of national sources, such as national statistical offices. In principle, reporting covers trade excluding re-exports, but for the Netherlands, among others, re-exports are part of the figures. (See also Aerts et al., 2022, for further information).
Figure 3.5.1 shows that the Netherlands was responsible for 3.1% of global exports in 2021. The Netherlands ranked sixth among exporters worldwide, after China, the US, Germany, Japan and South Korea. Neighbouring countries such as France, the UK and Belgium export less individually than the Netherlands in terms of value. With the seaport of Rotterdam and Schiphol Airport, the Netherlands forms an essential logistics hub in the heart of Europe. The Dutch share in the global goods export market has grown since 2015. During that period, the importance of the Netherlands for global goods exports rose by 0.3 percentage points. Trade integration by the Netherlands thus continued to increase in spite of the stagnation in global trade. For example, the Netherlands participated to a greater extent in global value chains and intra-industry trade increasednoot3 (Nauta & Sander, 2022).
| Exporteur | China | US | Germany | Japan | South Korea | Netherlands |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1970 | 0.6 | 13.6 | 12.2 | 6.4 | 0.3 | 3.9 |
| 1971 | 0.6 | 12.5 | 12.4 | 7.2 | 0.3 | 4.1 |
| 1972 | 0.7 | 11.9 | 12.5 | 7.2 | 0.4 | 4.4 |
| 1973 | 0.8 | 12.3 | 13.0 | 6.7 | 0.6 | 4.4 |
| 1974 | 0.7 | 11.6 | 11.9 | 6.9 | 0.6 | 4.1 |
| 1975 | 0.7 | 12.1 | 11.5 | 6.6 | 0.6 | 4.2 |
| 1976 | 0.7 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 7.1 | 0.8 | 4.3 |
| 1977 | 0.6 | 10.5 | 11.7 | 7.4 | 0.9 | 4.0 |
| 1978 | 0.7 | 10.9 | 11.8 | 7.8 | 1.0 | 4.0 |
| 1979 | 0.8 | 10.9 | 11.2 | 6.5 | 0.9 | 4.0 |
| 1980 | 0.9 | 10.8 | 10.2 | 6.7 | 0.9 | 3.8 |
| 1981 | 1.1 | 11.6 | 9.5 | 8.0 | 1.1 | 3.6 |
| 1982 | 1.1 | 11.2 | 10.2 | 7.7 | 1.2 | 3.7 |
| 1983 | 1.1 | 10.6 | 10.1 | 8.4 | 1.4 | 3.8 |
| 1984 | 1.2 | 10.6 | 9.7 | 9.1 | 1.6 | 3.6 |
| 1985 | 1.3 | 10.2 | 10.3 | 9.3 | 1.6 | 3.6 |
| 1986 | 1.3 | 9.4 | 12.4 | 10.3 | 1.7 | 4.0 |
| 1987 | 1.4 | 9.2 | 12.7 | 9.6 | 2.0 | 3.9 |
| 1988 | 1.5 | 10.2 | 12.3 | 9.8 | 2.3 | 3.8 |
| 1989 | 1.7 | 11.1 | 11.9 | 9.3 | 2.1 | 3.6 |
| 1990 | 1.7 | 10.9 | 12.0 | 8.5 | 2.0 | 3.8 |
| 1991 | 2.1 | 11.5 | 11.4 | 9.2 | 2.1 | 3.8 |
| 1992 | 2.5 | 11.4 | 11.3 | 9.3 | 2.1 | 3.7 |
| 1993 | 2.9 | 12.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 2.3 | 3.6 |
| 1994 | 3.2 | 11.6 | 10.0 | 9.6 | 2.4 | 3.5 |
| 1995 | 3.3 | 11.1 | 10.2 | 9.1 | 2.6 | 3.6 |
| 1996 | 3.5 | 11.2 | 9.8 | 8.0 | 2.6 | 3.4 |
| 1997 | 3.9 | 11.9 | 9.2 | 7.8 | 2.6 | 3.5 |
| 1998 | 4.0 | 12.0 | 10.1 | 7.3 | 2.6 | 3.3 |
| 1999 | 4.5 | 11.8 | 9.7 | 7.6 | 2.7 | 3.2 |
| 2000 | 5.1 | 12.5 | 8.3 | 7.5 | 2.7 | 3.0 |
| 2001 | 5.6 | 12.0 | 9.1 | 6.6 | 2.5 | 3.1 |
| 2002 | 6.4 | 10.9 | 9.4 | 6.5 | 2.7 | 3.0 |
| 2003 | 7.1 | 9.8 | 9.4 | 6.3 | 2.8 | 3.2 |
| 2004 | 7.8 | 8.9 | 9.4 | 6.2 | 2.9 | 3.2 |
| 2005 | 8.7 | 8.6 | 9.2 | 5.8 | 2.9 | 3.2 |
| 2006 | 9.4 | 8.7 | 9.1 | 5.4 | 2.8 | 3.1 |
| 2007 | 10.1 | 8.3 | 9.0 | 5.2 | 2.8 | 3.2 |
| 2008 | 10.1 | 8.1 | 8.8 | 4.9 | 2.8 | 3.1 |
| 2009 | 11.0 | 8.2 | 8.9 | 4.7 | 3.1 | 3.2 |
| 2010 | 11.9 | 8.1 | 8.3 | 5.1 | 3.3 | 3.0 |
| 2011 | 11.6 | 8.0 | 8.1 | 4.6 | 3.2 | 3.0 |
| 2012 | 12.3 | 8.2 | 7.7 | 4.5 | 3.2 | 3.0 |
| 2013 | 12.5 | 8.2 | 7.7 | 3.9 | 3.2 | 3.0 |
| 2014 | 13.3 | 8.4 | 7.9 | 3.8 | 3.2 | 2.9 |
| 2015 | 14.9 | 8.9 | 8.0 | 3.9 | 3.4 | 2.8 |
| 2016 | 14.4 | 8.8 | 8.3 | 4.1 | 3.3 | 2.8 |
| 2017 | 14.0 | 8.5 | 8.1 | 4.0 | 3.5 | 2.9 |
| 2018 | 14.1 | 8.3 | 8.0 | 3.9 | 3.3 | 2.9 |
| 2019 | 14.4 | 8.4 | 7.9 | 3.8 | 3.1 | 2.9 |
| 2020 | 15.7 | 8.0 | 7.9 | 3.7 | 3.1 | 3.1 |
| 2021 | 15.9 | 7.8 | 7.4 | 3.5 | 3.1 | 3.1 |
The emergence of Asian trade giants
China was unmistakably the world’s largest trading nation in 2021, accounting for 15.9% of total global exports (Figure 3.5.1). The Chinese economy has grown rapidly over the last 25 years. China’s accession to the World Trade Organization in 2001 enabled large global producers and multinationals to benefit from the country’s potential as ‘the world’s factory’. As a result, China was able to expand its exports rapidly to the rest of the world (Nicita & Razo, 2021). There are further details on the development of the Dutch goods trade with China in Chapter 2 of this publication.
South Korea was the fifth-largest exporter in the world in 2021, accounting for 3.1% of global exports. The South Korean contribution to global exports between 1970 and 2021 increased by 2.8 percentage points. The rapid increase in exports has boosted the country’s economic growth. This export growth can be explained by, among other things, (1) the export-driven policy and the conclusion of many free trade agreements with major countries, (2) benefiting from the economic prosperity of neighbouring countries by means of investments in China and attracting investment from Japan, and (3) diversifying export markets and products (Park, 2014; Connolly & Yi, 2015).
Almost one-fifth of Belgian goods imports came from the Netherlands
The Netherlands is among the top 5 suppliers of goods to all the trading partners from Figure 3.5.2. For its neighbour Belgium, it was the largest supplier of goods in 2021, with an 18% share. Germany imported nearly 10% of its goods from the Netherlands in 2021. This makes the Netherlands the second-largest supplier of goods to Germany, behind China. France imported 8.2% of all goods from the Netherlands in 2021 – a significantly larger share than in 2019.
| Partner | 2021 | 2019 |
|---|---|---|
| Belgium | 18.0 | 16.7 |
| Germany | 9.8 | 9.8 |
| Sweden | 8.8 | 8.1 |
| Denmark | 8.2 | 7.4 |
| France | 8.2 | 6.0 |
| Nigeria | 7.4 | 11.4 |
| Finland | 6.8 | 6.2 |
| UK | 6.3 | 7.2 |
| 1)Only those trading partners with a Dutch import share ≥ 6 percent and total imports from the Netherlands worth ≥ 1 US$ billion in 2021. | ||
The Netherlands less important as supplier of goods to Nigeria in 2021
The share of the Netherlands in Nigerian goods imports contracted from 11.4% in 2019 to 7.4% in 2021 (Figure 3.5.2). In 2021, India overtook our country as Nigeria’s second-largest import partner. Nigerian imports of refined petroleum products and medicaments from the Netherlands fell sharply in 2021 compared to 2019. Instead, Nigeria obtained more refined petroleum products from India in 2021 (based on UN COMTRADE data). India’s increasing capacity to supply refined petroleum makes the country a valuable partner for African countries (Gurjar, 2018). A significant share of Nigerian oil goes to the Netherlands, where it is subsequently processed into refined petroleum products. A proportion of these petroleum products returns to Nigeria as petrol and diesel (Nandram, 2023).
EU countries have smaller share in UK goods imports
In 2021, the Netherlands was relatively important to the UK as a supplier of goods, with a 6.3% share. Two years earlier, the Dutch share in UK goods imports was 0.9 percentage points larger. Figure 3.5.3 shows the same downward trend for the shares of other EU countries, such as France, Italy and Germany, in total UK imports. China overtook Germany in 2021 as the largest supplier of goods to the UK, which imported nearly 13% of its goods from China that year. In 2019, the share was still just under 10%. Other non-EU countries, such as the US and Norway, also gained in significance as suppliers of UK imports.
On 1 May 2021, the Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) between the EU and the UK came into force and Brexit became official. Since that date, the UK has been a ‘third country’ – a country outside the EU – for the Netherlands with regard to trade. From a Dutch perspective, we can see that the uncertainty in the run-up to Brexit already had an impact on goods exports to the UK. From 2016, Dutch goods exports to the UK grew more slowly than exports to other trading partners. Quasi-transit trade and re-exports from the Netherlands to the UK in particular decreased. The value added of quasi-transit trade and re-exports is lower than for domestic exports and the loss of value added therefore remained limited for the Netherlands.
The decline in re-exports and quasi-transit trade through the Netherlands to the UK is partly the effect of diverted commodity flows from Asia. Many goods that the Netherlands imports from outside the EU are subject to import tariffs and quotas. If these goods are subsequently shipped on to the UK in the form of re-exports or quasi-transit trade, there may be import duties to pay again when they are imported into the UK. For this reason, it is less attractive to sell goods from outside the EU to the UK via the Netherlands (see also Creemers et al., 2022).
| Partner | 2021 | 2019 |
|---|---|---|
| China | 12.7 | 9.8 |
| Germany | 11.2 | 13.0 |
| US | 8.1 | 7.7 |
| Netherlands | 6.3 | 7.2 |
| Norway | 4.9 | 3.1 |
| France | 4.7 | 5.8 |
| Italy | 4.0 | 4.2 |
| 1)Only trading partners with an import share of ≥ 4% in 2021. | ||
The Netherlands gains larger share in Polish and Taiwanese imports
In Table 3.5.4 (which only lists the trading partners that imported at least US$1 billion worth of goods from the Netherlands in 2021 and is therefore a supplement to the trading partners in Figure 3.5.2), we see that the Netherlands holds a relatively important position as a supplier to Poland, with a share of 5.5%. Eleven years earlier, the Netherlands had a 4.6% share in Poland’s goods imports. In 2021, the Netherlands exported more than 12% of other motor vehicles, such as heavy goods vehicles or buses, to Poland, making it our second-largest importer of these goods. After Germany and China, the Netherlands was Poland’s third most significant import partner in 2021, having progressed from fifth place in 2010.
Taiwan is relatively dependent on the Netherlands for its goods imports, as can be deduced from Table 3.5.4. It mainly imports machinery for manufacturing chips (lithography machines). With a share of 36.5%, Taiwan was our largest customer for this machinery in 2021. In 2021, the Dutch market share in Taiwan’s imports was 2 percentage points higher than 11 years earlier (see also CBS, 2022d) and it represented 3.2% of total Taiwanese goods imports. China, Japan and the US were Taiwan’s largest import partners in 2021.
| 2010 | 2015 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2010 | 2015 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| % | % | ||||||||||
| Ireland | 5.2 | 4.7 | 5.3 | 5.4 | 5.9 | Morocco | 2.4 | 2.4 | 2.1 | 2.3 | 2.4 |
| Italy | 5.0 | 4.8 | 4.9 | 5.5 | 5.5 | Switzerland | 3.6 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 2.1 |
| Luxembourg | 6.8 | 4.5 | 5.8 | 5.6 | 5.5 | Saudi Arabia | 2.1 | 1.4 | 2.5 | 2.3 | 2.1 |
| Poland | 4.6 | 4.7 | 5.0 | 5.4 | 5.5 | South Africa | 1.8 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.7 | 1.9 |
| Greece | 5.5 | 5.4 | 4.6 | 5.7 | 5.3 | Slovenia | 2.4 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 1.9 |
| Portugal | 5.2 | 4.9 | 5.0 | 5.4 | 5.2 | Slovakia | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 1.9 |
| Lithuania | 4.7 | 5.0 | 5.6 | 5.5 | 5.1 | Ukraine | 1.9 | 1.6 | 1.9 | 2.1 | 1.8 |
| Spain | 4.9 | 4.2 | 4.7 | 5.0 | 5.1 | South Korea | 1.1 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 1.5 | 1.7 |
| Norway | 4.5 | 4.6 | 5.0 | 5.3 | 5.0 | Australia | 0.8 | 0.9 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.4 |
| Austria | 3.7 | 3.4 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 4.4 | Brazil | 1.2 | 1.7 | 1.5 | 1.3 | 1.3 |
| Czech Republic | 4.8 | 4.5 | 3.9 | 4.1 | 4.4 | US | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 |
| Hungary | 3.9 | 4.2 | 4.6 | 4.2 | 4.1 | China | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 0.8 |
| Bulgaria | 2.6 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 3.9 | 4.1 | Canada | 0.5 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.8 |
| Afghanistan | 3.0 | 2.5 | 2.0 | 3.3 | 3.9 | Singapore | 2.0 | 1.4 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.8 |
| Romania | 3.4 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.8 | Mexico | 1.0 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.6 |
| Estonia | 2.7 | 4.4 | 4.2 | 4.3 | 3.8 | Japan | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.6 |
| Croatia | 2.4 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 3.7 | 3.6 | India | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.6 |
| Israel | 3.1 | 3.0 | 2.3 | 3.4 | 3.3 | Indonesia | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 |
| Taiwan | 1.2 | 1.2 | 3.2 | 2.7 | 3.2 | Malaysia | 0.7 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 |
| Russia | 3.2 | 2.4 | 2.9 | 3.0 | 2.8 | Thailand | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
| Turkey | 2.9 | 2.4 | 2.7 | 2.8 | 2.6 | Vietnam | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 |
| Egypt | 2.4 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 2.5 | Hong Kong | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 |
Source:CEPII, edited by CBS
1)Only trading partners that imported ≥ US$ 1 billion worth of goods from the Netherlands in 2021.
Nearly 10% of Iceland’s imports came from the Netherlands
If we look at the trading partners that import goods worth less than US$1 billion from the Netherlands, the Dutch share in Iceland’s imports is the largest. Iceland sourced 9.5% of all imported goods from our country in 2021. For Iceland, the Netherlands is the third-largest supplier of goods after Norway and Denmark. In 2020, this share was 11%, making the Netherlands the largest supplier of goods to Iceland. In particular, our country supplies Dutch-manufactured electrical appliances to Iceland.
3.6Importance of the Netherlands as a market for other countries
In this section, we set out what share the Netherlands has in the goods exports of other countries. In addition to the importance of the Netherlands for exports from other economies, we also look at the Netherlands’ ranking among the main destinations for other economies.
Figure 3.6.1 shows that the Netherlands was responsible for 3.2% of global imports in terms of value in 2021. This means the Dutch contribution to global imports declined by 1.1 percentage points between 1970 and 2021. The share in global imports of other European countries, including Italy, the UK, France and Germany, was also down. In 2021, the Netherlands ranked eighth among importers worldwide, after the US, China, Germany, Japan, France, Hong Kong and the UK. The US was the largest importing country in the world in 2021, accounting for close to 13% of total global imports. China occupied second place in 2021, with a 9.4% share in global goods imports. In 2000, before China’s accession to the WTO, the country only imported 2.6% of the total. The increasing importance of China for global imports was partly fuelled by increasing demand for consumer goods from an emerging middle class. Another factor is China’s role in global production chains, where some goods are imported for processing or assembly, before being exported as semi-finished products or finished products (Eurostat, 2022).
Hong Kong moved up to sixth place, with a 3.3% share in global imports. In 1970, the share was only 0.8%. Hong Kong’s role as a link between the Chinese mainland and the rest of the world strengthened over time, as did its status as an international financial centre. Given its small domestic market, the lack of natural resources/raw materials and a limited production sector, Hong Kong depends on international trade to maintain its competitiveness (Cheung et al., 2018; Pang, 2020).
| Jaar | US | China | Germany | Japan | France | Hong Kong | UK | Netherlands |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1970 | 12.5 | 0.6 | 10.0 | 5.1 | 5.9 | 0.8 | 6.4 | 4.3 |
| 1971 | 12.9 | 0.6 | 10.2 | 4.8 | 5.9 | 0.8 | 6.4 | 4.3 |
| 1972 | 13.1 | 0.6 | 10.2 | 4.9 | 6.3 | 0.8 | 6.5 | 4.2 |
| 1973 | 11.9 | 0.8 | 10.0 | 5.9 | 6.3 | 0.8 | 6.5 | 4.2 |
| 1974 | 11.3 | 0.8 | 8.9 | 6.8 | 6.2 | 0.7 | 6.3 | 4.1 |
| 1975 | 10.3 | 0.8 | 9.1 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 0.6 | 5.8 | 4.0 |
| 1976 | 11.6 | 0.6 | 9.6 | 6.0 | 6.5 | 0.7 | 5.4 | 4.1 |
| 1977 | 12.4 | 0.7 | 9.7 | 5.8 | 6.3 | 0.8 | 5.3 | 4.2 |
| 1978 | 13.1 | 0.8 | 9.6 | 5.5 | 6.2 | 0.9 | 5.7 | 4.1 |
| 1979 | 12.6 | 1.0 | 9.9 | 6.1 | 6.4 | 0.8 | 6.1 | 4.1 |
| 1980 | 12.0 | 1.0 | 9.6 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 0.8 | 5.7 | 3.9 |
| 1981 | 13.2 | 0.9 | 8.6 | 6.7 | 6.1 | 0.9 | 5.0 | 3.4 |
| 1982 | 13.0 | 0.9 | 8.8 | 6.6 | 6.4 | 0.9 | 5.2 | 3.5 |
| 1983 | 14.3 | 1.0 | 8.9 | 6.5 | 5.9 | 0.9 | 5.3 | 3.6 |
| 1984 | 16.8 | 1.3 | 8.4 | 6.5 | 5.5 | 1.0 | 5.3 | 3.4 |
| 1985 | 17.1 | 1.9 | 8.5 | 6.1 | 5.6 | 0.9 | 5.3 | 3.5 |
| 1986 | 17.1 | 1.7 | 9.3 | 5.2 | 6.2 | 1.0 | 5.7 | 3.7 |
| 1987 | 16.2 | 1.5 | 9.4 | 5.4 | 6.5 | 1.1 | 5.9 | 3.8 |
| 1988 | 15.6 | 1.7 | 9.2 | 6.0 | 6.4 | 1.2 | 6.3 | 3.7 |
| 1989 | 15.3 | 1.6 | 9.0 | 6.3 | 6.5 | 1.2 | 6.2 | 3.6 |
| 1990 | 14.3 | 1.3 | 9.9 | 6.2 | 6.9 | 1.1 | 6.1 | 3.8 |
| 1991 | 13.7 | 1.6 | 10.6 | 6.1 | 6.7 | 1.3 | 5.6 | 3.7 |
| 1992 | 13.9 | 2.0 | 10.2 | 5.7 | 6.5 | 1.4 | 5.6 | 3.7 |
| 1993 | 15.5 | 2.7 | 9.1 | 5.9 | 5.7 | 1.6 | 5.5 | 3.4 |
| 1994 | 15.7 | 2.6 | 8.9 | 6.0 | 5.7 | 1.7 | 5.3 | 3.4 |
| 1995 | 14.7 | 2.7 | 9.1 | 6.2 | 5.7 | 1.7 | 5.2 | 3.4 |
| 1996 | 14.9 | 2.7 | 8.6 | 6.2 | 5.4 | 1.6 | 5.3 | 3.3 |
| 1997 | 15.7 | 2.7 | 8.0 | 5.8 | 5.1 | 1.7 | 5.5 | 3.3 |
| 1998 | 16.7 | 2.6 | 8.5 | 4.8 | 5.5 | 1.3 | 5.8 | 3.3 |
| 1999 | 18.1 | 2.7 | 8.2 | 5.2 | 5.5 | 1.2 | 5.7 | 3.4 |
| 2000 | 18.1 | 2.6 | 7.3 | 5.5 | 5.0 | 3.1 | 5.5 | 3.4 |
| 2001 | 17.4 | 2.9 | 7.6 | 5.2 | 5.1 | 3.0 | 5.5 | 3.4 |
| 2002 | 17.2 | 3.4 | 7.3 | 4.8 | 5.0 | 3.1 | 5.4 | 3.4 |
| 2003 | 16.1 | 4.2 | 7.4 | 4.7 | 5.1 | 3.1 | 5.3 | 3.5 |
| 2004 | 15.4 | 4.6 | 7.4 | 4.5 | 5.0 | 3.0 | 5.1 | 3.5 |
| 2005 | 15.5 | 4.7 | 7.1 | 4.6 | 4.8 | 3.0 | 4.8 | 3.6 |
| 2006 | 14.9 | 4.9 | 7.0 | 4.4 | 4.7 | 2.9 | 4.7 | 3.7 |
| 2007 | 13.7 | 5.2 | 6.9 | 4.2 | 4.6 | 2.9 | 4.6 | 3.6 |
| 2008 | 12.6 | 5.3 | 6.7 | 4.3 | 4.5 | 2.7 | 4.3 | 3.7 |
| 2009 | 12.1 | 6.3 | 6.8 | 4.0 | 4.6 | 3.1 | 4.1 | 3.6 |
| 2010 | 12.3 | 7.2 | 6.4 | 4.3 | 4.0 | 3.2 | 3.8 | 3.5 |
| 2011 | 11.8 | 7.5 | 6.4 | 4.3 | 4.0 | 3.2 | 3.7 | 3.4 |
| 2012 | 12.1 | 7.7 | 6.0 | 4.4 | 3.7 | 3.4 | 3.7 | 3.4 |
| 2013 | 12.0 | 8.1 | 6.0 | 4.2 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.6 | 3.3 |
| 2014 | 12.3 | 8.0 | 6.1 | 4.1 | 3.6 | 3.5 | 3.7 | 3.3 |
| 2015 | 13.4 | 7.6 | 6.1 | 3.6 | 3.5 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.0 |
| 2016 | 13.3 | 7.6 | 6.3 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.7 | 4.1 | 3.0 |
| 2017 | 12.9 | 8.3 | 6.2 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.7 | 3.6 | 3.1 |
| 2018 | 12.9 | 8.6 | 6.3 | 3.6 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 3.2 |
| 2019 | 13.0 | 8.7 | 6.3 | 3.6 | 3.5 | 3.1 | 3.6 | 3.2 |
| 2020 | 13.3 | 9.2 | 6.5 | 3.5 | 3.3 | 3.4 | 3.6 | 3.2 |
| 2021 | 12.9 | 9.4 | 6.4 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 3.2 | 3.2 |
Almost a quarter of Iceland’s goods exports go to the Netherlands
The Netherlands is among the top 5 markets for goods from all the trading partners from Figure 3.6.2. Its neighbour Belgium exported around 12.4% of its goods to the Netherlands in 2021. This makes the Netherlands its third-largest market after Germany and France. For Iceland, our country was the largest buyer of goods in 2021, with a 24.3% share. The bulk of Dutch imports from Iceland in 2021 consisted of aluminium. Ivory Coast also sold the largest share of its goods – 9.7% – to the Netherlands in 2021. The country mainly supplies the Dutch industry with cocoa beans and semi-finished products such as cocoa mass and cocoa butter. Ivory Coast is by far our largest supplier of cocoa: in 2021, 38% of cocoa imported by the Netherlands came from Ivory Coast. The value of exports from Ivory Coast to the Netherlands was nearly a fifth lower in 2021 than in 2019. Because cocoa bean harvests vary from year to year, the price of that commodity is subject to considerable fluctuations.
| Handelspartner | 2021 | 2019 |
|---|---|---|
| Iceland | 24.3 | 23.1 |
| Belgium | 12.4 | 11.8 |
| Ivory Coast | 9.7 | 9.9 |
| UK | 8.5 | 6.7 |
| Russia | 8.1 | 9.9 |
| Norway | 7.5 | 10.4 |
| Luxembourg | 6.9 | 6.0 |
| Germany | 6.4 | 6.2 |
| Finland | 6.3 | 6.0 |
| 1)Only those trading partners with a Dutch export share of ≥ 6% and total exports to the Netherlands worth ≥ 1 US$ billion in 2021. | ||
The Netherlands less important as a market for Norway and Russia in 2021
The share of the Netherlands in Norway’s goods exports contracted from 10.4% in 2019 to 7.5% in 2021 (Figure 3.6.2). In 2021, the Netherlands was no longer Norway’s third-largest export partner, having been overtaken by Sweden. Norway’s exports destined for the Netherlands principally consist of mineral fuels. Russia exported 8.1% of its goods to the Netherlands in 2021, down from 9.9% in 2019. In contrast, exports from Russia to the UK, the US and China increased in the same period. Russia specifically supplies the Netherlands with crude oil and refined petroleum products, and in 2021, it was our largest supplier of crude oil.
The Netherlands has larger share in exports from Hong Kong and Ukraine
Hong Kong is relatively dependent on the Netherlands for its goods exports, as can be deduced from Table 3.6.3 (which only lists the trading partners that exported at least US$1 billion worth of goods to the Netherlands in 2021 and is therefore a supplement to the trading partners in Figure 3.6.2). In 2021, the Netherlands received 5.1% of Hong Kong’s goods exports, which were mainly mobile telephones, modems, routers, computers, laptops, tablets, chips and semiconductor components. After China, Hong Kong was our second-largest supplier of mobile telephones, modems and routers in 2021. In 2021, the Dutch market share in Hong Kong’s exports was 2 percentage points higher than in 2010. China, India, the UK and the Netherlands were Hong Kong’s largest markets in 2021. According to figures from Hong Kong’s statistical office, the vast majority of Hong Kong’s exports to the Netherlands are re-exports. Hong Kong’s statistical office collects figures not only on the destination of the re-exports, but also on the origin of the imports for those re-exports. These data show that in 2021, close to 91% of Hong Kong’s re-exports to the Netherlands originated from China. These figures confirm Hong Kong’s function as a transit port for moving goods produced on the Chinese mainland to the rest of the world (Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department, 2023; see also Creemers et al., 2020).
We see in Table 3.6.3 that Ukraine sold 3.1% of all exported goods to Dutch enterprises in 2021. In 2021, China, Poland, Turkey and Russia were Ukraine’s biggest markets. The Dutch share in Ukrainian goods exports has grown by 2.1 percentage points since 2010. In addition to the Netherlands, both China and Poland have increased in importance as destinations for exports from Ukraine. Conversely, Russia’s importance as a market for Ukrainian exports has plummeted: since the annexation of Crimea in 2014, there has been a serious conflict on the Russia-Ukraine border. Dutch enterprises mainly imported refined vegetable oils and fats, such as sunflower oil, as well as maize from Ukraine in 2021. Ukraine was the largest supplier of maize to the Netherlands in 2021, followed at a great distance by France, Germany and Romania. It was also our largest supplier of refined vegetable oils and fats in the same year (see also CBS, 2022e).
| 2010 | 2015 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2010 | 2015 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| % | % | ||||||||||
| Estonia | 2.3 | 2.9 | 3.3 | 4.0 | 5.7 | Italy | 2.4 | 2.3 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 3.1 |
| Lithuania | 5.4 | 4.3 | 3.8 | 5.4 | 5.3 | Turkey | 2.1 | 2.1 | 3.0 | 2.9 | 2.9 |
| Sweden | 4.9 | 5.2 | 5.4 | 5.2 | 5.2 | China | 2.7 | 2.3 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 2.7 |
| Denmark | 4.1 | 4.5 | 5.3 | 6.3 | 5.2 | South Africa | 2.6 | 1.7 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 2.7 |
| Ireland | 3.8 | 4.2 | 5.3 | 5.1 | 5.1 | Bulgaria | 1.5 | 2.4 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 2.5 |
| Hong Kong | 3.1 | 4.1 | 6.0 | 4.6 | 5.1 | Philippines | 3.4 | 2.4 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.5 |
| Libya | 3.2 | 0.4 | 2.0 | 0.9 | 4.8 | Morocco | 2.6 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 2.4 |
| Nigeria | 2.8 | 6.1 | 5.7 | 5.3 | 4.6 | Greece | 2.1 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 2.4 |
| Poland | 4.3 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 4.4 | Malaysia | 3.0 | 2.7 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.2 |
| Algeria | 6.8 | 5.2 | 3.5 | 2.7 | 4.2 | India | 2.9 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 2.0 | 2.2 |
| Argentina | 3.4 | 2.3 | 2.8 | 3.0 | 4.1 | Vietnam | 2.3 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 2.4 | 2.2 |
| France | 4.1 | 3.8 | 3.5 | 3.7 | 4.0 | Slovakia | 2.9 | 2.5 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 2.0 |
| Portugal | 4.1 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 3.8 | 4.0 | Singapore | 1.6 | 1.2 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 1.9 |
| Czech Republic | 3.8 | 2.9 | 3.8 | 4.1 | 3.7 | Austria | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 1.9 |
| Spain | 3.2 | 3.0 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 3.6 | Switzerland | 2.3 | 1.6 | 1.9 | 2.1 | 1.9 |
| Peru | 2.2 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 3.4 | Indonesia | 2.1 | 1.9 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 1.8 |
| Romania | 2.7 | 2.5 | 3.1 | 3.4 | 3.3 | Thailand | 1.7 | 1.8 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 1.8 |
| Pakistan | 1.7 | 2.1 | 2.9 | 3.3 | 3.3 | Chile | 3.6 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 1.9 | 1.7 |
| Bangladesh | 4.2 | 2.7 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 3.2 | Taiwan | 1.7 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.6 |
| Brazil | 4.3 | 4.1 | 3.2 | 3.1 | 3.2 | Japan | 2.0 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.6 |
| Colombia | 5.1 | 4.8 | 3.6 | 2.6 | 3.2 | Saudi Arabia | 1.2 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.3 |
| Hungary | 3.1 | 3.2 | 3.3 | 3.4 | 3.1 | South Korea | 1.1 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.9 |
| Israel | 3.4 | 3.2 | 3.6 | 4.5 | 3.1 | Canada | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 0.8 |
| US | 2.8 | 2.7 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 3.1 | Australia | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.8 |
| Ukraine | 1.0 | 2.2 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.1 | Mexico | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.4 |
Source:CEPII, edited by CBS
1)Only trading partners that exported ≥ US$1 billion worth of goods to the Netherlands in 2021.
The Netherlands is important market for goods from Cameroon and Kenya
Of the countries with an export flow to the Netherlands of less than US$1 billion, Cameroon and Kenya are very dependent on the Dutch market (Figure 3.6.4). For Cameroon, the Netherlands is the second-largest export destination, with a share of 13.6%, preceded only by China. Cameroon mainly supplies cocoa and crude oil to the Netherlands. After Ivory Coast and Ghana, Cameroon was the third-largest supplier of cocoa to the Netherlands. In 2021, 8.1% of Kenya’s exports were destined for the Netherlands. Kenya supplied many flowers and plants to the Netherlands, making it the second-largest supplier in this product group.
| Exporteur | 2021 | 2019 |
|---|---|---|
| Cameroon | 13.6 | 13.7 |
| Kenya | 8.1 | 7.4 |
| Venezuela | 5.3 | 1.3 |
| Uruguay | 4.6 | 5.3 |
| Latvia | 4.0 | 2.9 |
| Gabon | 4.0 | 1.8 |
| 1)Only those trading partners with a Dutch share of ≥ 4% and goods exports to the Netherlands worth <1 US$ billion in 2021. | ||
The Netherlands was fourth-largest market for Venezuelan exports in 2021
Venezuela sold the largest share of its goods – 26.4% – to China in 2021. The Netherlands ranked fourth among Venezuela’s export partners, with a 5.3% share in its goods exports. Two years earlier, that share was 1.3%. Large amounts worth of alcohols, phenols, derivatives, crustaceans and molluscs left Venezuela for the Netherlands in 2021. In the same period, the Chinese and US shares of Venezuelan exports declined. In 2019, the US announced sanctions against Venezuela’s state oil company PDVSA. Since then, the PVDSA’s accounts in the US have been frozen and US residents are banned from trading with the enterprise. Venezuela is a major oil producer, but due to the sanctions imposed by the US, it has an extremely difficult time selling its oil to other countries (Roy, 2022; NOS Nieuws, 2019).
3.7References
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Noten
Information about specific goods is not available in the CEPII-CHELEM data. In order to interpret the findings on the basis of CEPII-CHELEM, CBS figures (as a reflection of international trade flows) are used at product level in sections 3.5 and 3.6.
For further details on volume developments in Dutch trade in goods, we refer to Chapter 2 of this publication.
Importing and exporting the same product indicates intra-industry trade (Van Marrewijk, 2008).