International trade and transit flows; emissions to air on Dutch territory
Growth in trade and its impact on the environment is a matter of growing concern. In part as a result of the continuing fragmentation of production chains, raw materials and products to be consumed or (further) processed in the Netherlands increasingly come from remote areas. The growth in goods trade goes hand in hand with strong growth in goods transport by ship, plane, train and lorry, which is accompanied by emissions of all kinds of harmful substances. This chapter illustrates the links between emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), particulate matter (PM10) and international goods flows into, through or from the Netherlands.
8.1Key findings
The actual CO2 emissions associated with international trade and transit flows increased between 2007 and 2019 and now account for 23.1% of emissions from all mobile sources (maritime and inland vessels, aircraft, road traffic, rail transport) on Dutch territory. The corresponding figure in 2007 was 21.7%. With regard to total emissions of nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter (PM10), there was nevertheless a reduction in absolute terms over this period, partly attributable to cross-border transport. The share of cross-border trade and transit flows in NOx and PM10 emissions from all mobile sources nevertheless remains considerable, at 56.0% and 42.7% respectively. The contribution from international goods flows to total emissions of nitrogen oxide from mobile sources also increased compared to 2007. That was not the case of particulate matter.
Maritime transport contributes most to all three types of emissions, followed by road transport and inland shipping. Road transport has performed rather poorly when it comes to reducing CO2 emissions related to cross-border trade and transit transport flows. This also follows from a decrease in the CO2 emission factornoot1 for cross-border road transport. For each kilogram of CO2 emission it was possible to transport almost 9% more international trade by road in 2007 than in 2019. In the case of nitrogen oxide and particulate matter emissions, road transport performed better in 2019 compared to 2007.
The emission factors for the three distinct trade and transit flows, namely imports for domestic use plus exports of Dutch products, re-exports plus the required imports for re-export, and transit trade, are very similar. That means the actual/total emission load for these three types of cross-border trade and transit flows are of a similar order of magnitude. Hence there is some scope for a trade-off between the various flows. Any leeway in the emission load resulting from a decrease in one flow would create room for growth in another transport flow without causing an increase in actual/total emissions on Dutch territory.
8.2International trade and transit flows and their emissions
Cutting emissions is a challenge for the future
In the years ahead the social, economic and political debate will be largely fuelled by the Netherlands’ need to gain control of the various emissions to air, in connection with national and international obligations up to the year 2050 (SER, 2021). The European Commission aims to have a fully circular European economy in place by that year, with no greenhouse gas emissions (Peeperkorn, 2021). A substantial part of these emissions relate to international goods flows into, through or from the Netherlands and globalisation. Globalisation and the fragmentation of production chains are the factors driving the various trade and transit flows between and through countries. As an open, export-focused system, the Dutch economy benefits from the economic growth elsewhere in Europe and the world.
Which international trade and transit flows are there?
The international flows of goods to, from and through the Netherlands can be divided into three main flows: (1) imports for domestic use plus exports of domestically produced goods, (2) re-exports plus the required imports for re-export, and (3) transit trade. These international goods flows and the different modes of transport by which goods can be conveyed are shown in the infographic below.noot2 A total of 558 billion kilograms of goods were transported from the Netherlands to other countries in 2019, 9.5% more than in 2007. The bulk consists of transit trade, with goods being shipped to the Netherlands for short periods before being transshipped, for example, onto a vehicle or inland vessel for shipment to a destination outside the Netherlands. The second largest flow comprises imports for domestic use plus exports of domestically produced goods, with 277 billion kilograms of imports and 205 billion kilograms leaving the country. Imports for re-export plus re-exports is the smallest flow. Imports for re-export plus re-exports have grown particularly strongly since 2007, by around 20.3%. Transport associated with domestic use plus exports of domestic goods grew by around 6.9%. An increase of 5.2% can be seen in transit trade.
The distinction between main flows is important because they differ greatly in terms of earnings measured in value added. The economic literature shows that free trade leads to large welfare gains, including as a result of lower prices, greater choice of goods and better working conditions (Berkhout et al., 2018). The Netherlands does not earn equal amounts from each main flow. Based on how much value added each flows generates for the Dutch economy, the flow of exports of domestically produced goods – amounting to €125 billion – is by far the most important. The value added of re-exports was around €35 billion (see Chapter 2 of this publication). Dutch society therefore earns around four times more from exports of Dutch-made products than from the re-export flow. The smallest flow in terms of value added is transit trade. An initial estimate is that transit trade in total generates around €5 billion to €6 billion of value added. One of the reasons for this low contribution to GDP is that compared to re-exports it requires even fewer services. The activities mainly comprise transshipment and possible storage of goods (De Blois & Alberda, 2019).
International trade and transit flows generate emissions
Free trade also entails costs, however. Examples are welfare losses from free trade due to the negative external effects of environmental pollution resulting from transportation of products between countries. All three main flows in principle make the same demands on scarce infrastructure if they are transported physically through and via the Netherlands by means of a chosen transport mode. The transportation of 1 million kilograms of Dutch products is no different than the transportation of 1 million kilograms via transit trade or 1 million kilograms of re-exports using the same transport mode.
By combining various statistics, it is possible to illustrate the emissions associated with international trade and transit flows for the years 2007 and 2019. Statistics on imports, exports and transit trade are obtained by integrating the International Trade in Goods statistics and transport statistics for six transport modes. By taking an additional step the result can be linked to the statistics on actual emissions to air on Dutch territory. These emission statistics are also used in international reports issued each year to determine the country’s IPCC greenhouse gases and NEC air pollution (NEA, 2020). The combination of these data sources provides detailed insights for policy analyses with regard to goods transport, international trade and ecological research areas. This chapter focuses on actual emissions from mobile sources in connection with cross-border trade and transit flows on Dutch territorynoot3 (see box for more information).
What do actual emissions from mobile sources consist of?
Emissions of CO2, nitrogen oxide or particulate matter may come from a stationary or mobile source. Examples of stationary sources are combustion chambers (such as ovens, stoves and boilers), industrial processes and other non-mobile activities such as the use of aerosols and paint and the decomposition of fertiliser (ammonia). Mobile sources comprise means of transport (cars, lorries, diesel trains, inland vessels and aircraft) and mobile machinery with a combustion engine (such as agricultural tractors, forklift trucks and road construction machinery). This chapter focuses on emissions from mobile sources, devoting particular attention to cross-border trade and transit flows.
In the case of actual emissions the key criterion is that emissions take place on Dutch territory, including the Dutch part of the continental shelf in the North Sea. It makes no difference whether they result from a means of transport that is registered in the Netherlands or abroad. For example, the emissions of a cargo aircraft registered in Qatar but landing and taking off at Schiphol Airport are included in actual emissions on Dutch territory.
Corrections must be made in order to measure emissions from mobile sources associated with international trade and transit flows. First, goods transported through pipelines are disregarded, as emissions from items such as compressors and pump housings associated with this transport mode are included under emissions from stationary sources, even in the case of a cross-border goods flow. A second correction is necessary for supplies of goods into customs warehouses, known as entrepot flow. The associated emissions cannot yet be directly allocated to one of the three main trade flows. That is only possible once the goods have cleared customs. When these corrections have been made, there is a triptych linking international trade, transport and emissions.
Which emissions are included?
- CO2: Carbon dioxide
CO2 is always released in the combustion of fossil fuels such as diesel or fuel oil in the engine of a vehicle, vessel or aircraft. Every kind of fossil fuel contains a certain amount of carbon, which attaches to oxygen in the air during combustion. Lower CO2 emissions can only be achieved by cutting a vehicle’s consumption by means of technical innovations or by choosing a different fuel with lower emissions per litre.
- NOx: Nitrogen oxide
Although the word emissions is generally associated with CO2, nitrogen oxide is a second important type of emission. When fossil fuels are burned in the engine of a lorry, aircraft or ship the oxygen reacts not only with the carbon in the fuel, but also, provided the temperature is high enough, with nitrogen in the air. That produces nitrogen oxide. Nitrogen oxide is harmful to human and animal health and damages the environment. Combined with particulate matter (PM10), NOx can form smog. The extent of nitrogen oxide emissions is associated with efficient combustion: the more efficient the combustion, the lower the nitrogen emissions. Reducing nitrogen oxide emissions is a difficult process and in the case of diesel emissions, particulate matter and nitrogen oxide require special attention.
- PM10: Particulate matter
Particulate matter is a collective name for microscopically small particles of varied composition that occur in our air. The frequently used abbreviations PM10, PM2.5 and PM0.1 do not refer to the composition of the particulate matter but to the diameter of the particles. In the case of PM10 the particles have a diameter of less than 10 micrometres (0.01 millimetres). Particulate matter emissions from vehicles come partly from the exhaust, for example in the form of soot particles. Particulate matter is also released by the wearing of tyres and brakes and the overhead lines on the railway network.
8.3Emissions to air related to international trade and transit flows
This section describes the extent and type of emissions associated with each international goods flow. It also states whether these emissions have increased or decreased over a 13–year period (2007–2019).
International trade and transit flows responsible for over half of freight transport emissions
The freight transport emissions resulting from international trade and transit flows differ depending on the type of emission. More than half (51.6%) of the CO2 emissions related to freight transport in the Netherlands are associated with cross-border trade and transit flows (Figure 8.3.1 and Table 8.3.3). This component contributes 5.4% to total CO2 emissions on Dutch territory (including stationary sources). More than three-quarters (76.4%) of the NOx emissions related to freight transport in the Netherlands are associated with cross-border trade and transit flows. In 2019 70.0% of the particulate matter emissions relating to freight transport in the Netherlands were associated with cross-border trade and transit flows. This component contributes 39.6% to the total emissions of nitrogen oxide on Dutch territory; in the case of particulate matter emissions the figure is 11.8%.
| Uitstoot | Cross-border trade flows | Inland traffic and transport |
|---|---|---|
| Carbon dioxide | 51.6 | 48.4 |
| Nitrogen oxides | 76.4 | 23.6 |
| Particulate matter | 70.0 | 30.0 |
Re-exports contribute least to air pollution
Figure 8.3.2 shows the emissions of cross-border freight transport, subdivided by type of emission and type of main flow. Imports for domestic use plus exports of Dutch products in 2019 accounted for 43.2% of the CO2 emissions related to freight transport caused by cross-border trade. In the case of NOx and particulate matter, transit trade accounted for the largest share of freight transport-related emissions caused by cross-border trade.
| Uitstoot | Imports for domestic use + domestic exports | Imports for re-export + re-exports |
Transit |
|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon dioxide | 43.0 | 17.4 | 39.6 |
| Nitrogen oxides | 38.9 | 15.2 | 45.9 |
| Particulate matter | 39.5 | 15.2 | 45.3 |
Lower CO2 emissions from mobile sources, but higher CO2 emissions from heavy goods vehicles
The overall picture is that CO2 emissions from mobile sources in the Netherlands decreased slightly (–2.7%), but that emissions related to freight transport rose by 8.8% in the 2007–2019 period (Table 8.3.3). The actual CO2 emissions associated with cross-border trade and transit flows increased by 3.4%. The share of total emissions from mobile sources in total emissions thus amounted to 23.1% in 2019, compared to 21.7% in 2007. The increase was due to growth in CO2 emissions in all three international trade flows. The relative increase in the main flow of imports for re-export plus re-exports is the largest (15.7%), although the contribution from this flow to the extra CO2 emissions was the smallest over this period.
| Carbon dioxide (CO2) | Nitrogen oxides (NOx) | Particulate matter (PM10) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2007* | 2019* | 2007* | 2019* | 2007* | 2019* | |
| million kilograms | ||||||
| Mobile sources: total | 41,554 | 40,424 | 324 | 236 | 18.4 | 8.2 |
| Related to freight transport | 16,597 | 18,054 | 228 | 173 | 11.8 | 5.0 |
| Cross-border trade and transit flows; total | 9,015 | 9,321 | 162 | 133 | 8.3 | 3.5 |
| Imports for domestic use + domestic exports1) | 3,737 | 4,023 | 62 | 52 | 3.2 | 1.4 |
| Imports for re-export + re-exports | 1,411 | 1,632 | 23 | 20 | 1.1 | 0.5 |
| Transit trade | 3,460 | 3,708 | 65 | 61 | 3.4 | 1.6 |
1)The summations for the main flows do not correspond to the totals for cross-border flows as a result of flows via customs warehouses.
Smaller decrease in emissions of nitrogen oxide from cross-border flows than from total freight transport
The overall picture is different in the case of emissions of nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter from mobile sources in the Netherlands. Actual NOx emissions decreased by 27.0% over this 13-year period, from 324 million kilograms in 2007 to 236 million kilograms in 2019. The NOx emissions associated with cross-border trade and transit flows lagged behind, decreasing by only 18.1%. This decrease is also smaller than the decrease in NOx emissions by total freight transport (–24.1%) between 2007 and 2019. This takes the share of cross-border freight emissions in total emissions from mobile sources to 56.0%. 13 years ago it was 49.9%.
Cross-border flows show biggest decrease in particulate matter emissions
The actual particulate matter emissions from mobile sources decreased most over this period, by 55.3%. The PM10 emissions associated with cross-border trade and transit flows exceeded this figure with a decline of 57.8%. The decrease in particulate matter emissions was greatest in the main flow of imports for domestic use plus exports of Dutch products. This takes the share of cross-border freight emissions in total emissions from mobile sources to 42.7%. In 2007, the figure was 45.2%.
Most emissions to air are due to maritime transport
Table 8.3.4 shows which transport mode is responsible for particular emissions related to cross-border trade and transit flows and whether there was any increase or decrease over the observed 13-year period (2007–2019). There are considerable differences in the emission shares per transport mode, used for international goods flows (see infographic in section 8.2). Maritime transport has the largest share and cargo aviation has a very small share. This pattern is also reflected in actual emissions relating to the transport modes. Maritime transport dominates all emission types.
| Carbon dioxide (CO2) | Nitrogen oxides (NOx) | Particulate matter (PM10) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2007* | 2019* | 2007* | 2019* | 2007* | 2019* | |
| million kilograms | ||||||
| Mobile sources: total | 41,554 | 40,424 | 324 | 236 | 18.4 | 8.2 |
| Related to freight transport | 16,597 | 18,054 | 228 | 173 | 11.8 | 5.0 |
| Cross-border trade and transit flows; total | 9,015 | 9,321 | 162 | 133 | 8.3 | 3.5 |
| Maritime transport | 5,125 | 5,353 | 122 | 107 | 7.1 | 2.9 |
| Road transport | 2,665 | 2,836 | 22 | 11 | 1.0 | 0.4 |
| Inland shipping | 1,081 | 1,001 | 16 | 13 | 0.2 | 0.2 |
| Rail transport | 63 | 43 | 2 | 1 | - | - |
| Air transport | 81 | 87 | 0 | 0 | - | - |
Growth in CO2 emissions from international road transport, aviation and sea transport
There are differences, however, in the degree of increase or decrease in actual emissions between the transport modes (Figure 8.3.5). In the case of road transport, CO2 emissions associated with cross-border trade and transit flows increased by 6.4% between 2007 and 2019. Only CO2 emissions associated with aviation grew even faster over this period (+7.7%). This takes the road transport share in total emissions from mobile sources to 7.0%, a rise of 0.6 percentage points.
| Vervoerwijze | Carbon dioxide | Nitrogen oxides |
|---|---|---|
| Maritime transport | 4.5 | -12.5 |
| Road transport | 6.4 | -49.2 |
| Inland shipping | -7.4 | -16.0 |
| Rail transport | -31.9 | -41.3 |
| Air transport | 7.7 | 21.4 |
Road transport achieves biggest decrease in NOx emissions
Maritime transport, with a 45.2% share in total emissions from mobile sources, is responsible for the biggest contribution to nitrogen oxide emissions (Table 8.3.4). Actual NOx emissions from maritime transport related to cross-border trade and transit flows fell, however, by 12.5% between 2007 and 2019 (Figure 8.3.5). The decrease in NOx emissions was greatest in the case of road transport, at 49.2%. A key reason for this decrease is the increasing use of lorries with cleaner (Euro 6) engines (CBS, 2019). In the case of cargo aviation, an increase of 21.4% was recorded. In absolute terms this is a relatively small increase of 66,000 kilograms of nitrogen oxide.
Rise in particulate matter emissions due to inland shipping
Between 2007 and 2019, actual particulate matter emissions from inland shipping related to cross-border trade and transit flows increased by 15.5% (Table 8.3.4). With a 2.8% share in total mobile source emissions, inland shipping makes a limited contribution to PM10 emissions in the transport of cross-border trade and transit flows to, via and from the Netherlands. Both maritime transport and road transport recorded a sharp decrease of around 60%.
8.4Emission factor for international trade and transit flows
Actual emissions are calculated by multiplying activity data, such as vehicle mileage and fuel consumption by the age of a vehicle to indicate the state of technology used in the engines and exhaust systems. This leads to an emission factor. The emission factor states the emission per unit of activity in a single figure, for example per kilometre travelled or per kilogram of fuel consumed. The same approach could be adopted for an emission factor for cross-border transport. This is a factor that states how many kilograms of goods can be transported (including across borders) for 1 kilogram of emissions.
Given the state of technology used in the various means of transport, an emission factor can be calculated for cross-border transport for emissions to air on Dutch territory in a particular year, on the basis of the number of kilograms transported in that year. It takes account of the fact that over time newer and cleaner technology becomes available that gradually replaces the old technology. It also takes account of the fact that the gross weight transported may change from year to year. Logistics changes, for example in the choice of transport method, can also play a role over a 13-year period.
Particulate matter emissions show the biggest improvement in the emission factor for cross-border transport
Table 8.4.1 shows the emission factor for cross-border transport for three types of emissions to air on Dutch territory and by main flow, for the years 2007 and 2019. The biggest improvement in the emission factor for cross-border transport can be seen in PM10 emissions. Compared to thirteen years ago, around 157.3% more international goods could be transported for each kilogram of particulate matter emissions in 2019. Put another way, whereas in 2007 almost 116,000 kilograms of goods could be transported for one kilogram of particulate matter emissions, in 2019 the figure was more than 2.5 times that amount. With regard to NOx emissions in 2019 it was possible to transport around 31.7% more goods internationally, per kilogram of nitrogen oxide emissions, than in 2007. With regard to CO2 emissions the progress is limited, at barely 4.7%. In 2019 it was possible to carry 112 kilograms of goods exports, imports or transit trade per kilogram of carbon dioxide emissions, compared to 107 kilograms in 2007. As shown in Table 8.3.3, the amount of CO2 emissions from cross-border transport increased by 3.4% over the 13-year period. Combined with the emission factor, it can be stated that the 8% growth in the weight transported over the 2007–2019 period did not lead to 8% more CO2 emissions. Part of the growth in emissions was absorbed by the use of cleaner technology and innovations in the logistical process compared to 13 years earlier.
Little difference in emission load for the Netherlands across main flows
International trade flows, and hence also the required transport, are expected to grow further (ITF, 2021). Choices will have to be made when it comes to planning for the expected increase. Table 8.4.1 shows that the three main flows differ little when measured by emission factor, by emission type and hence in terms of the emission load for the country. In other words, for each kilogram of CO2 emissions approximately an equal amount of goods can be transported in transit, imported for re-export or imported for domestic use. A certain trade-off is also possible. The curbing of growth in the transported weight of one flow will already lead to lower emissions, or, put another way, the curbing of one flow frees up space for another flow to grow without causing an increase in actual emissions on Dutch territory (Roerink, 2021).
| Carbon dioxide (CO2) | Nitrogen oxides (NOx) | Particulate matter (PM10) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2007* | 2019* | 2007* | 2019* | 2007* | 2019* | |
| kilogram | ||||||
| Cross-border trade and transit flows; total | ||||||
| Kg cross-border transport per kg emissions | 107 | 112 | 5,979 | 7,877 | 115,772 | 297,865 |
| By main flows | ||||||
| Imports for domestic use + dometic exports | 104 | 106 | 6,251 | 8,230 | 122,259 | 306,899 |
| Imports for re-export + re-exports | 110 | 108 | 6,653 | 8,773 | 135,723 | 332,402 |
| Transit trade | 112 | 120 | 5,931 | 7,299 | 115,586 | 279,597 |
8.8% decrease in CO2 emission factor for road transport
Among the individual transport modes, the CO2 emission factor for cross-border transport declined most in the case of road transport (Table 8.4.2). In 2019, it was possible to transport 72 kilograms of goods across the border for each kilogram of carbon dioxide emissions. In 2007 the figure was 79 kilograms. That represents a decrease of 8.8%, which is a negative development. In the case of road transport, the technology or innovation in the logistical process was insufficient to keep pace with the growth of road transport in order to improve the ratio. It may also have to do with a decline in the load factor, for example the ratio of the average load to total vehicle freight capacity.
Of all transport modes, air freight has the lowest CO2 emission factor on Dutch territory. The CO2 emission factor for cross-border air freight deteriorated slightly by 20 kilograms per kilogram of CO2 emission compared to 2007. An improvement can be seen, however, in the CO2 emission factor for cross-border goods transported by seagoing vessels. The emission factor rose by 14.6% over 13 years. In the case of maritime transport the technology (such as cleaner fuel and exhaust systems) or innovation in the logistics process was certainly sufficient to improve the ratio. From 2020 new, stricter rules on fuel are once again being introduced, which will make seagoing vessels less polluting (Nagtzaam, 2019; ITF, 2020). Another important factor is the increasing scale of container transport by seagoing vessels. The continued globalisation of the economy, with production shifting partly to countries abroad, will have a further major impact on global supply chains in the years ahead. Another effect of this is ever greater competition and hence price pressure. The rising price pressure is prompting container shipping companies to pursue further increases in scale, for example through strategic alliances and the sharing of vessels (Pals, 2019). Since shipping companies are increasingly focused on costs, the size of the average ship has been growing for many years (Pals, 2019; Verberckmoes, 2018).
Rail transport has also clearly improved in terms of CO2 emission per transported kilogram. In 2019 it was possible to carry 1.5 times more goods by rail for every kilogram of CO2 emission than in 2007. Rail transport has been much more to the fore in recent years as an addition or even an alternative to maritime and air transport between Europe and Asia. It is environmentally friendlier than air transport and faster than transport by ship (ING Economisch Bureau, 2018; DSV, undated).
| Carbon dioxide (CO2) | Nitrogen oxides (NOx) | Particulate matter (PM10) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2007* | 2019* | 2007* | 2019* | 2007* | 2019* | |
| kilogram | ||||||
| Cross-border trade and transit flows; total | ||||||
| Kg cross-border transport per kg emissions | 107 | 112 | 5,979 | 7,877 | 115,772 | 297,865 |
| By transport mode | ||||||
| Maritime transport | 99 | 114 | 4,166 | 5,697 | 71,583 | 211,189 |
| Road transport | 79 | 72 | 9,500 | 18,162 | 200,746 | 524,273 |
| Inland shipping | 200 | 197 | 13,824 | 14,993 | 1,072,635 | 846,147 |
| Rail transport | 476 | 746 | 19,115 | 34,742 | - | - |
| Air transport | 21 | 20 | 5,466 | 4,616 | - | - |
8.5References
References
Berkhout, E., Euwals, R., Kempen, van, M., Meijerink, G. & Ziegler, K. (2018). The effects of globalisation in the Netherlands: A theoretical and empirical survey. Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis: The Hague.
Blois, de, C. & Alberda, A. P. (2019). Internationale goederenstromen – Ontwikkelingen in de internationale goederenstromen van Nederland 2007–2017. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2019). Lorry traffic becoming less polluting. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
DSV (z.d.). Containervervoer per trein van en naar China: Snel en aantrekkelijk in prijs.
ING Economisch Bureau (2018). Nieuwe Zijderoute – De gulden middenweg. Sneller dan zeevervoer, goedkoper dan luchtvervoer.
ITF (2020). Navigating Towards Cleaner Maritime Shipping. Paris, France: OECD Publishing.
ITF (2021). ITF Transport Outlook 2021. Paris, France: OECD Publishing.
Nagtzaam, P. (2019). Containervervoer veel duurder door nieuwe regels zeevaart. RTL Nieuws.
NEA (2020). Rapportage Energie voor Vervoer in Nederland 2019. The Hague.
Pals, B. (2019). Vijf belangrijke trends in het wereldwijde containertransport. Nieuwsblad Transport.
Peeperkorn, M. (2021). Dit is het groene megapakket waarmee de EU klimaatneutraal moet worden. De Volkskrant.
Roerink, R. (2021). De mooie woorden van brede welvaart. Financieel Dagblad.
SER (2021). Investeren in brede welvaart, publieke sectoren en toekomstig verdienvermogen. The Hague.
Verberckmoes, S. (2018). MSC: maximale schaalgrootte voor havens bereikt. Flows.
Noten
Factor expressing the number of kilograms of goods that can be transported across borders for 1 kilogram of emissions.
During this reporting year (2019) trade flows were not yet affected by the coronavirus pandemic, although the first infections already occurred in the Chinese city of Wuhan at the end of 2019. On 11 March 2020 the World Health Organization officially confirmed that the virus outbreak had triggered a pandemic, leading to major economic disruption and social restrictions worldwide. Due to the lack of data for 2020, at the time of compiling this publication we cannot make any statements about the impact of the coronavirus crisis.
Results of actual emissions on Dutch territory as determined on 4 June 2021.