Geographical dimension of Dutch goods trade
How important is the European Union for Dutch trade and how important is the Netherlands for other EU countries’ trade? What are the main countries of origin and destination for Dutch trade in goods? How important is the Netherlands for the goods trade of all other countries in the world? How is the Dutch market share developing in the countries on the Dutch trade agenda? In this chapter, we answer these and many other questions by analysing the geographical dimension of Dutch goods imports and exports. We do so by assessing the position from a Dutch perspective (with CBS statistics) and from the perspective of the trading partners (with international trade statistics).
5.1Key findings
Goods trade viewed from a Dutch perspective
Goods exports fell by €32 billion to €483 billion in 2020. That is a decrease of 6% compared to 2019. In 2020 the value of Dutch goods imports was €424 billion. That is a decrease of 8% compared to 2019. The decrease in exports and imports is a direct consequence of the coronavirus crisis and strong fluctuations in trading prices.
The European Union (EU) continues to be very important for Dutch trade. CBS statistics show that in 2020 the share of exports destined for the EU (including the United Kingdom) remained high at 70%. Of the 50 most important export partners, 21 were in the EU. As for Dutch goods imports, more than half of the value (53%) came from the EU in 2020. Of the 50 most important goods suppliers, 18 were EU countries.
Nearly 22% of Dutch goods exports go to Germany. Belgium follows a long way behind in 2nd place with over 10%. France completes the top 3 with a share of nearly 8%. The United States and China are the only non-European countries among the top 10 export destinations. Only China (+10%) and Poland (+5%) imported more goods from the Netherlands than in 2019. Our neighbours are the main destinations for both domestic exports and re-exports.
Dutch goods imports are less focused on the EU compared to exports, but here too the EU share is the largest (53% of the total). In 2020, the ten largest international goods suppliers were responsible for 64% of total Dutch imports. Of those ten countries, seven are European (Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Ireland and Poland) and three are non-European (China, the United States and Russia). The goods imports from nine partners among these top 10 decreased in 2020 compared to the year before. China is the only country in the top 10 goods suppliers showing import growth. China thus grew to be our 2nd largest import partner, at the expense of Belgium.
Goods trade viewed from an international perspective
The Dutch economy ranks 17th in the world (in terms of nominal GDP in 2019 according to UNCTAD). Goods trade accounts for 19.7% of GDP and is thus of great importance to the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has intensive trading relationships with the 10 largest economies in the world (top 10 according to UNCTAD figures). Exports to this group of countries, including quasi-transit trade, amounted to €230 billion in 2019. That represents 36% of total Dutch goods exports. In that year the Netherlands sourced 50% of all goods (€279 billion) from these countries. The trade deficit with the 10 largest economies thus amounted to €49 billion. The Netherlands had a large trade surplus (€128 billion) with the other countries. The surplus on total goods trade amounted to €79 billion in 2019.
UNCTAD and UN Comtrade figures show the Netherlands to be well-placed as a supplier of goods to the neighbouring countries. The Netherlands was Belgium’s main supplier of goods throughout the 2015–2019 period. The Dutch share in Belgian goods imports amounted to over 17% in 2019. For Germany, the Netherlands is the 2nd largest supplier of goods. Not only does the Netherlands have an intensive export trade relationship with Belgium and Germany, but it is also well positioned as an importer of goods from these countries. The Netherlands has been the 3rd largest export destination for Belgium for the last five years. Among German goods exporters the Netherlands has remained in 4th place since 2015, except in 2017, when it was the 5th largest export partner.
5.2Dutch goods exports
Sections 5.2 and 5.3 analyse goods trade from the Dutch perspective based on CBS statistics. In 2020, the value of Dutch goods exports totalled €483 billion according to the International Trade in Goods statistics. That is a decrease of 6% compared to 2019, when Dutch companies exported goods worth €515 billion. The decrease is a direct consequence of the coronavirus crisis and the oil surplus in the spring of 2020. Both events led to lower demand and lower trade prices. After the coronavirus outbreak a large proportion of China’s production chains were shut down for several weeks at the end of January 2020. Dutch importers were therefore unable to obtain goods, causing manufacturers to halt production already in March due to the unavailability of components. This led to a 17% drop in exports in Q2, as can be seen in Figure 5.2.1. A recovery began in the autumn of 2020. Manufacturing was able to resume production and the crude oil price rose steadily over the course of 2020. The year 2020 ended with a 2% drop in export value compared to the same quarter in 2019. The lower export value in Q4 was due entirely to lower prices.
| Jaar | Kwartaal | Exports |
|---|---|---|
| 2019 | Q1, 2019 | 3.8 |
| 2019 | Q2, 2019 | 5.2 |
| 2019 | Q3, 2019 | 1.9 |
| 2019 | Q4, 2019 | 3.2 |
| 2020 | Q1, 2020 | 0 |
| 2020 | Q2, 2020 | -17.1 |
| 2020 | Q3, 2020 | -6.1 |
| 2020 | Q4, 2020 | -2.1 |
The United Kingdom withdrew from the European Union on 1 February 2020. During the whole of 2020, however, trade with the United Kingdom was conducted under the trade agreements applicable to all EU countries. The United Kingdom is therefore treated as a full EU member state in this chapter. The United Kingdom left the EU with a new trade agreement on 1 January 2021. Goods exports in Q1 2021 are considered at the end of this section. Here, and here alone, the United Kingdom is naturally treated as a non-member of the European Union.
Seven of every ten export euros earned from EU customers
The European Union is by far the most important sales area, with an export share of 70%. Goods worth €337 billion were exported to the EU (including the United Kingdom) in 2020 (Figure 5.2.2). Exports to the EU grew by 11% between 2015 and 2020. As a consequence of increasing globalisation, the EU’s share in Dutch exports is declining slightly year by year. In 2015, 72% of goods exports were still destined for EU countries. Goods exports from the Netherlands to non-EU countries totalled €146 billion in 2020. Between 2015 and 2020, Dutch exports to non-EU countries grew by 25%. The non-EU share in 2015 was 28% of the value of total goods exports. Five years later, 30% of Dutch goods exports went to this group of countries.
| Jaar | EU countries | Non-EU countries |
|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 303 | 116 |
| 2016 | 307 | 117 |
| 2017 | 334 | 134 |
| 2018 | 352 | 145 |
| 2019 | 360 | 156 |
| 2020 | 337 | 146 |
Dutch goods trade in 2020 was considerably lower than in 2019 (Figure 5.2.1). The Netherlands exported goods worth €33 billion less in 2020 than in 2019. That is a decrease of 6.3%. There is little difference between the decreases of 6.2% and 6.5% respectively in goods exports to EU and non-EU countries.
76% to Europe and 12% to Asia
In 2020 more than three-quarters of Dutch goods exports were destined for the European continent (Figure 5.2.3). This share has been decreasing for many years, mainly in favour of Asian countries, including China.noot1 Asia had a 12% share in Dutch exports in 2020, amounting to almost €56 billion. That is somewhat higher than in 2015. In 2020 8% of Dutch goods exports (€38 billion) were destined for the American continent. With a 3% export share, Africa was a small player among the destinations for Dutch goods. The African continent receives slightly more goods than Spain, for example. Spain ranks 7th as an export destination.
| Continent | Europe | Asia | Americas | Africa | Oceania and other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 324 | 43 | 31 | 14 | 7 |
| 2019 | 388 | 57 | 43 | 17 | 11 |
| 2020 | 365 | 56 | 38 | 15 | 9 |
With a drop of 13% compared to 2019, exports to the Americas saw an above-average contraction in 2020. Goods exports to Africa also fell faster than total Dutch exports in 2020. The fall in exports to the Americas and Africa is largely attributable to the coronavirus crisis and lower oil prices. With Africa in particular there was above-average trade in oil and petroleum products (Creemers & Draper, 2021; CBS, 2021a). Goods exports to Asia were least affected in 2020. Oil and gas barely play a significant role in exports to Asia. Dutch exports to Asia were affected less severely in 2020, partly due to substantially higher machinery exports.
Eight European countries are among the top 10 export destinations
The 10 most important export markets accounted for two-thirds of the total value of Dutch goods exports in 2020. This share has barely changed since 2015. Germany (€107 billion, 22% share) and Belgium (€50 billion, 10% share) have traditionally been our main export partners (Figure 5.2.4). Between 2020 and 2019, exports to these countries fell by 7% and 5% respectively. In addition to the Netherlands’ two neighbours, a further six European countries feature among the 10 most important export destinations, the main ones being France and the United Kingdom. Goods exports to the United Kingdom fell by around 12% in 2020, to below the 2015 level. The United Kingdom is the only country among the top 10 export destinations whose export value was lower in 2020 than in 2015.
| Partner | 2020 | 2019 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 106 | 114 | 99 |
| Belgium | 50 | 52 | 44 |
| France | 37 | 40 | 33 |
| United Kingdom | 35 | 40 | 36 |
| United States | 24 | 27 | 18 |
| Italy | 19 | 20 | 17 |
| Spain | 14 | 16 | 12 |
| Poland | 14 | 14 | 10 |
| China | 14 | 13 | 9 |
| Sweden | 9 | 10 | 8 |
Of the 10 most important export destinations only exports to China and Poland grew in 2020 compared to 2019. Exports to China increased by more than 10% to €14 billion in 2020. This growth was achieved mainly through higher exports of machinery manufactured in the Netherlands (CBS, 2020a). It is notable that Poland was the only European country in the top 10 with an increase in Dutch exports, of over 5%. With an export value of €14 billion, Poland was the Netherlands’ 8th largest export destination. The growth in exports to Poland was due to strong growth in re-exports of electrical equipment (CBS, 2020b).
Domestic exports were worth €263 billion in 2020, 8% less than in 2019. Domestic goods thus made up 54% of total exports. The decrease in exports was due in part to the coronavirus crisis but mainly to the fact that exports of Dutch manufactured goods were hit by substantially lower oil and gas prices. Exports to the 10 most important trading partners differ greatly depending on whether the goods are Dutch-made or re-exports. China and the United States in particular receive above-average amounts worth of domestic goods. Goods produced by Dutch manufacturers made up 80% and 68% of good exports to China and the United States respectively. Dutch companies produced baby milk powder for export worth €2.3 billion in 2020. No less than two-thirds of this went to China. Dutch breweries produced beer worth €1.7 billion for customers outside the Netherlands. Of this, 42% went to the United States.
South Korea among top 10 destinations for Dutch products
Focusing on domestic goods (because they generate the highest earningsnoot2, see Chapter 2 of this publication), we note that the main export destinations are countries bordering the Netherlands (Figure 5.2.5). Germany (€50 billion, 19% share) is in 1st place, followed by Belgium (€27 billion, 10% share).
| Land | Share in total exports | Share in total domestic exports |
|---|---|---|
| Germany | 22 | 19 |
| Belgium | 10 | 10 |
| United Kingdom | 7 | 7 |
| France | 8 | 7 |
| United States | 5 | 6 |
| China | 3 | 4 |
| Italy | 4 | 3 |
| Spain | 3 | 3 |
| Poland | 3 | 2 |
| South Korea | 1 | 2 |
Exports of domestic goods to South Korea rose by €2.4 billion to €5.7 billion in 2020, representing a 71% increase compared to 2019. Oil and gas barely play a significant role in exports to South Korea. Partly for this reason the South Korea share in total domestic exports increased. South Korea thus climbed to 10th place in the ranking of export destinations for goods produced in the Netherlands. In 2019 it was still in 16th place. In 2020 South Korea was the principal trade destination for the Netherlands in Asia after China. Thanks in part to the trade agreement between the European Union and South Korea, trade between the Netherlands and South Korea has grown rapidly in recent years (RVO, 2021a). Dutch exports to the peninsula mainly consisted of specialised machinery. In 2020 the Netherlands exported around 16% of specialised machinery to South Korea, making the country the 2nd largest purchaser of specialised machinery. High-technology companies in South Korea use this machinery in part for the production of electronics (Evofenedex, 2021). This enables South Korea to maintain a lead in the development and production of semiconductors, monitors and batteries. These components are crucial to the high-tech industry (RVO, 2021b). The Netherlands is also a major exporter of technology for the South Korean food industry (RVO, 2021b).
China rose to 6th place among the export destinations for goods produced in the Netherlands. Domestic exports to China grew by 15% to €11.2 billion in 2020. As in the case of South Korea, hardly any mineral fuels are exported to China.
Re-exports mainly to European destinations
The export value of re-exports amounted to €219 billion in 2020. That is a decrease of 4% compared to 2019. Dutch companies import a relatively large amount of goods that undergo little or no processing in the Netherlands before being re-exported. These re-exports accounted for 45% of the total value of goods exports in 2020. The Netherlands has a very important distribution function as a gateway to Europe. The Port of Rotterdam plays an important role in this regard (Creemers et al., 2021). This is due, for example, to its favourable geographic location combined with the advanced Dutch logistical and data infrastructure, experience with complex logistics processes and a relatively highly educated labour force (Kuypers et al., 2012; NFIA, 2019). The Netherlands is an important hub for goods from all corners of the world and the first point of arrival in Europe. From there the goods continue their journey into the European hinterland. Almost 85% of Dutch re-exports in 2020 were consequently destined for European partners, principal among which were Germany, Belgium, France, the United Kingdom and Italy (Figure 5.2.6). Many high-tech products, for example, are transported from Asia to the European hinterland via the Netherlands.
| Land | Share in total exports | Share in total re-exports |
|---|---|---|
| Germany | 22 | 26 |
| Belgium | 10 | 10 |
| France | 8 | 9 |
| United Kingdom | 7 | 8 |
| Italy | 4 | 5 |
| Poland | 3 | 4 |
| Spain | 3 | 4 |
| United States | 5 | 4 |
| Czech Republic | 2 | 2 |
| Sweden | 2 | 2 |
Re-exports amounted to 53% of total exports to Germany, France and Italy, with Belgium lagging behind at 45%. The share of re-exports to Belgium is in line with average Dutch exports. The United States, in 8th place, is the only non-European destination among the top 10 partners for Dutch re-exports. The re-export share among the Netherlands’ Eastern European trading partners is notably high. Re-exports make up 64% of total exports to the Czech Republic, 61% to Hungary and 58% to Poland.
UK export share at all-time low in Q1 2021
The share of exports going to the United Kingdom reached an all-time low in Q1 2021 (Figure 5.2.7). A 6.6% share of total goods exports went to the United Kingdom in Q1. Never before has the UK’s share in Dutch goods exports been so low.
Total Dutch goods exports grew by more than 5% to €134 billion in Q1. Exports to the United Kingdom were positively impacted by higher demand for oil and gas in Q1. Oil and gas prices were substantially higher than in the previous year. Exports to the United Kingdom nevertheless remained stagnant at €8.9 billion, almost the same level as in the previous year. This result puts the United Kingdom in 4th place among export destinations. Germany (22% export share), Belgium (11%) and France (8%) make up the top 3.
| Periode | Share |
|---|---|
| 2016 | 9.2 |
| 2017 | 8.6 |
| 2018 | 8.1 |
| 2019 | 8.5 |
| 2020 | 7.0 |
| 2021 | 6.6 |
In Q1 the export value of oil and gas increased by 49% to €853 million (Figure 5.2.8). Exporters of flowers and plants fared exceptionally well, partly due to the poorer performance in 2020. Exports of flowers and plants to the United Kingdom grew by 52% to €533 million. Exports of medical equipment and other medical supplies made good progress in the first three months of this year. Conversely, exports of Asian-produced goods in particular, such as modems, routers, clothing and computers, were substantially lower than a year earlier. Demand from the United Kingdom for cars and meat was also significantly lower in the first three months of 2021 than in 2020.
| categorie | Development |
|---|---|
| Increases | . |
| Petroleum and natural gas | 280 |
| Flowers and plants | 183 |
| Medical instruments and devices | 121 |
| Electromedical equipment | 67 |
| Medicines | 26 |
| . | |
| Decreases | . |
| Modems and routers | -206 |
| Clothing | -204 |
| Passenger cars | -112 |
| Computers, office machinery | -96 |
| Meat | -70 |
5.3Dutch goods imports
Dutch importers purchased goods abroad worth €424 billion in 2020. In the previous year the value of Dutch goods imports was 8% higher at €460 billion. The drop in imports was due to a combination of the oil and coronavirus crises. The oil crisis resulted from disagreements between oil-producing countries concerning the oil price. This situation resulted in a large supply and an exceptionally low oil price. At the same time the coronavirus pandemic depressed demand for goods. Import prices consequently fell sharply in the spring of 2020. These events led to a substantial fall of over 16% in imports in Q2 2020 (Figure 5.3.1). In the course of 2020 demand for goods among consumers and producers picked up and the crude oil price moved higher. The fall in goods imports in Q4 was consequently limited to 5%. This contraction of imports was due entirely to lower import prices.
| Jaar | Kwartaal | Imports |
|---|---|---|
| 2019 | Q1, 2019 | 5.3 |
| 2019 | Q2, 2019 | 6.6 |
| 2019 | Q3, 2019 | 2.7 |
| 2019 | Q4, 2019 | 2.5 |
| 2020 | Q1, 2020 | -2.1 |
| 2020 | Q2, 2020 | -16.4 |
| 2020 | Q3, 2020 | -7.6 |
| 2020 | Q4, 2020 | -4.9 |
Over half of imports are from the EU
The Netherlands imported goods worth €424 billion in 2020, 14% more than in 2015. With a share of over 53% in 2020, most goods imported by the Netherlands came from EU countries, as in the previous five years (Figure 5.3.2). Imports from non-EU countries amounted to €198 billion in 2020, an increase of 15% compared to 2015.
| Jaar | EU countries | Non-EU countries |
|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 200 | 172 |
| 2016 | 200 | 168 |
| 2017 | 222 | 187 |
| 2018 | 236 | 205 |
| 2019 | 243 | 217 |
| 2020 | 226 | 198 |
Dutch goods imports were considerably lower in 2020 than in 2019. In 2020 the Netherlands imported goods worth €36 billion less than in the previous year. That represents a decrease of 8%. This decrease is reflected in goods imports from the EU (–7%) and from non-EU countries (–9%).
60% from Europe and 24% from Asia
Dutch goods imports came mainly from the continent of Europe. In 2020 more than 60% of Dutch imports came from European countries (Figure 5.3.3). Alongside Europe, Asia was also a major supplier of goods to the Netherlands. In 2020 Dutch imports from Asian countries amounted to €102 billion, twice the level of imports from the Americas and nine times more than imports from Africa. The imports to the Netherlands from Asia comprised mainly machinery and manufactured goods.
| Continent | Europe | Asia | Americas | Africa | Oceania and other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 233 | 81 | 44 | 12 | 3 |
| 2019 | 281 | 107 | 54 | 12 | 6 |
| 2020 | 255 | 102 | 52 | 11 | 5 |
Compared to 2019 imports from Asia fell by 4.4% in 2020, while total Dutch imports contracted by nearly 8%. Asia’s import share consequently rose by one percentage point to 24% in 2020. The decrease in goods imports was attributable particularly to lower imports of mineral fuels and transport equipment. Imports of mineral fuels fell in 2020 compared to the year before, but this fall was partly offset by higher imports of chemical products and natural products. The lockdown measures led to a shift in the spending pattern among consumers. Restaurants were closed for long periods, so consumers were unable to eat out and instead spent their money on new things. Many people also worked from home, leading to rising demand for electronics (Van der Duin, 2021).
China becomes 2nd largest import partner at expense of Belgium
China overtook Belgium to become the 2nd largest import partner in 2020, as the Netherlands imported goods from China worth over €44 billion (3.2% growth compared to 2019). By contrast, exports from Belgium amounted to €42 billion, a decrease of 8.1% compared to 2019. China’s share in Dutch goods imports has grown from 8.7% to 10.5% over the past five years. Germany remains the most important supplier of goods, with a share of 17.6% (€75 billion). The value of imports from Germany in 2020 was around 5% less than in 2019. In addition to Germany and Belgium, five other European countries are among the 10 largest import partners. Among these countries, the growth in imports from Ireland (+78%), Italy (+30%) and Poland (+26%) exceeded the average of 14% over the 2015–2020 period. Italy climbed two places to become the 7th largest import partner in 2020. Ireland rose one place. Goods imports from the United Kingdom fell by 19% in 2020 compared to the previous year; they fell by 15% over the 2015–2020 period. In addition to China, two other non-EU partners are included in the top 10: the United States (4th place) and Russia (8th place).
| Land | 2020 | 2019 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 75 | 79 | 66 |
| China | 44 | 43 | 32 |
| Belgium | 42 | 45 | 38 |
| United States | 34 | 37 | 30 |
| United Kingdom | 20 | 25 | 21 |
| France | 15 | 17 | 16 |
| Italy | 12 | 12 | 9 |
| Russia | 10 | 16 | 14 |
| Ireland | 9 | 9 | 5 |
| Poland | 9 | 9 | 7 |
Goods imports from nine partners among the 10 most important goods suppliers fell in 2020 compared to the previous year. China was the only country in the top 10 with import growth. The Netherlands mainly imported more electrical equipment from China. Russia saw the biggest fall in imports among the top 10. Imports from Russia decreased by 39%. Russia was our 8th largest import partner in 2020, with €9.5 billion in import value, and consequently fell one place compared to 2019. Russia is by far the largest supplier of mineral fuels. Lower demand and lower trade prices for mineral fuels led to a substantial contraction of imports from Russia.
Norway outside the top 10
Among the partners outside the 10 largest suppliers of goods to the Netherlands, Norway saw its exports fall by €4 billion (–31%) in 2020. The country supplied goods to the Netherlands worth €8.5 billion during the year. Norway still ranked 8th in 2019 but is now the Netherlands’ 12th largest import partner, with a 2% share. Like Russia, Norway is particularly important to the Netherlands as a supplier of oil and gas. We also see lower imports from Nigeria (€–1.1 billion), the main oil producer in Africa, and Saudi Arabia (€–0.6 billion). The Netherlands also imports large amounts of oil from these countries. The rather unsteady trend in oil and gas imports is not only due to changes in demand and prices. It is usual for oil importing companies to enter into longer-term contracts with their suppliers.
One-third of imports for the Dutch domestic market come from neighbouring countries
In section 5.2, goods exports are divided into two export flows: domestic exports and re-exports. Imports of goods can also be broken down into imports for domestic expenditure (consumption, intermediate use, capital goods) and imports for re-export.noot3
Focusing on goods imports for domestic expenditure, it can be seen that the Netherlands’ neighbours were still the main suppliers in 2019 (Figure 5.3.5). In 1st place was Germany (€45 billion, 21% share), followed by Belgium (€27 billion, 13% share). China completes the top 3 with a 7% share and imports worth €16 billion.
| Land | Share in total imports | Share in total imports for domestic use |
|---|---|---|
| Germany | 17 | 21 |
| Belgium | 10 | 13 |
| China | 9 | 7 |
| United States | 8 | 7 |
| United Kingdom | 5 | 6 |
| Russia | 3 | 4 |
| France | 4 | 4 |
| Norway | 3 | 3 |
| Italy | 3 | 2 |
| Poland | 2 | 2 |
Imports from China, the United States and Ireland are mainly destined for the European hinterland and leave our country after import in the form of re-exports. This is particularly due to the Netherlands’ favourable location, good infrastructural connections and the presence of large, central ports. Conversely, imports from Germany, Belgium and Russia are mainly intended for the Dutch domestic market. Around 71% of imports from Russia are processed or consumed in the Netherlands. The remainder of imports leave the Netherlands again as re-exports. For the other countries (the UK, France, Italy and Poland) among the top 10 goods suppliers (Figure 5.3.4) the ratio of imports for domestic expenditure to imports for re-export is in line with the average Dutch imports. Around half of the total imports are destined for the Dutch market. The remainder leave the Netherlands as re-exports.
Japan is a major supplier of goods for re-export
In 2020 the Netherlands’ main suppliers for re-export products were Germany (€31 billion, 15% share), China (€27 billion, 13% share) and the United States (€20 billion, 9% share). It is notable that Japan ranks 7th. In 2019 the Netherlands imported €6.1 billion worth of goods from Japan that were immediately re-exported. More than half of these imports comprised machinery. Japan does not figure among the 10 most important goods suppliers and with an import value of €8.1 billion was only the Netherlands’ 13th goods supplier in 2019.
5.4Importance of the Netherlands as a supplier of goods to other countries
The Netherlands exported goods worth €483 billion in 2020. Figure 5.4.1 shows that the Netherlands was responsible for 3.1% of global exports in 2020. The Dutch contribution to global exports between 2015 and 2020 increased by 0.3 percentage points. The share also increased slightly in 2020 compared to 2019. In 2020 the Netherlands ranked 4th among exporting countries worldwide after China, the United States and Germany.
Dutch exports to the EU (including the United Kingdom) increased by 0.2 percentage points in 2020 compared to 2019, reaching 6.6%. The Dutch share in EU exports remained almost unchanged at 1.4% in 2020. Over the 2015–2020 period we also see an increase of 0.4 percentage points in the Dutch contribution to EU exports. At the same time the export share to non-EU countries grew by 0.2 percentage points. The Dutch share in global exports grew by 0.1 percentage points to 3.1% in 2020. Between 2015 and 2020 the Dutch share in global exports grew by 0.3 percentage points.
| Jaar | World | EU | Non-EU |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2.8 | 6.2 | 1.2 |
| 2018 | 3.0 | 6.4 | 1.3 |
| 2019 | 3.0 | 6.4 | 1.4 |
| 2020 | 3.1 | 6.6 | 1.4 |
The large EU share (between 2015 and 2019) was mainly due to the Netherlands’ favourable geographic location. Many goods arrive from Asia and the Americas through the mainports of the Port of Rotterdam and Schiphol Airport and pass through the Netherlands as re-exports or transit trade by inland waterway, rail or road to countries in Europe. The Netherlands consequently has a large trade surplus with almost all EU countries.
Netherlands ranks 2nd among goods suppliers to Germany after China
Dutch exports to the 10 largest economies in the world based on UNCTAD figures amounted to €230 billion in 2019. That represents 36% of total Dutch exports. The Dutch share in imports of Germany and the United Kingdom was by far the highest (Figure 5.4.2). Both countries imported almost 8% of their goods from the Netherlands in 2019 and thus remained well above the EU average of 6.4%. From a German perspective the Netherlands is the 2nd largest import partner after China (CBS, 2020a; CBS, 2020b). In the case of the United Kingdom the Netherlands was the 4th largest import partner in 2019. As a supplier of goods the Netherlands ranks 7th and 5th respectively for imports of France and Italy.
Import share almost unchanged five years after the Brexit referendum
The United Kingdoms’ share in Dutch exports shrank every year between 2015 and 2019 (CBS, 2020c). By contrast the Dutch share in imports of the United Kingdom remained almost unchanged over the same period. In 2015, the year before the Brexit referendum, the Netherlands held a 7.5% share in UK imports. In 2019, before the trade barriers were erected, the United Kingdom imported 7.7% of its goods from the Netherlands. Dutch goods became increasingly expensive for British importers after the Brexit referendum. In 2015 the pound sterling was worth €0.73. Four years later it had fallen in value by 21% (€0.88). Goods from the eurozone became on average 21% more expensive for companies in the United Kingdom due to this fall in the exchange rate. Other important trading partners in the eurozone such as Germany, France, Belgium and Ireland were of course also affected by the fall in the exchange rate. Between 2015 and 2019 these countries suffered more than the Netherlands from declining demand from the United Kingdom. CBS has regularly published figures on the importance of the United Kingdom for Dutch goods exports in recent years (see CBS, 2020c; CBS, 2020d; CBS, 2021b; CBS, 2021c).
| Land | 2019 | 2018 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|
| United States | 1.2 | 1.0 | 0.8 |
| China | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.5 |
| Japan | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4 |
| Germany | 7.9 | 8.1 | 8.3 |
| India | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
| United Kingdom | 7.7 | 8.3 | 7.5 |
| France | 4.3 | 4.6 | 4.2 |
| Italy | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.6 |
| Brazil | 1.1 | 0.9 | 1.4 |
| Canada | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.6 |
The Dutch share of imports into the largest non-EU economies is significantly smaller. In the case of Brazil, the Netherlands was the 20th country of origin for imports in 2019. In that year the Netherlands exported particularly crude oil, petroleum products and medicines to Brazil. China, the United States and Argentina are the main goods suppliers for Brazil. The Netherlands occupies a modest position with regard to goods imports into Canada (16th), China (35th), India (31st), Japan (31st) and the United States (18th).
Netherlands is an important supplier of goods for Belgium, Nigeria and Sweden
Among countries importing goods worth more than €1 billion from the Netherlands, Belgium is most dependent on the Netherlands (over 17%) (Table 5.4.3). After the Netherlands, Belgium imports the highest value in goods from Germany and France. In Sweden and Germany the Netherlands ranks 2nd. Sweden imports most goods from Germany, while China is the largest supplier for German importers. It is notable that the Netherlands occupies a prominent position in Lithuania, where it is the 5th largest supplier of goods.
Of the ten countries most dependent on the Netherlands for their goods imports, nine are EU members. Nigeria is in the top 10 because it imports in particular large amounts worth of petroleum products from the Netherlands (see also CBS, 2021a). Petrol and diesel made up 73% (€3.8 billion) of exports to Nigeria in 2019. From a Nigerian perspective, the Netherlands was the 4th most important country of origin for imports in 2019. Only the economic heavyweights China, India and the United States were ahead of the Netherlands. In 2018 the top 10 countries with imports from the Netherlands worth more than €1 billion were the same as in 2019, although some countries changed positions. Germany and Denmark rose one place, pushing the United Kingdom down to 6th place.
Trade agenda
The Netherlands earned €160 billion in value added from exports of goods in 2019 (see also Chapter 2 of this publication). Goods exports thus made a major contribution to the economy and employment. As the Netherlands earns a major share of its national income from exports, efforts are being made to strengthen its export position. Particular attention is being paid to trade with 30 specific countries, shown in bold in the tables below (Kaag, 2018). The Netherlands’ share in these countries’ imports, together with other countries’ imports, is shown in Table 5.4.3 (for countries with imports worth more than €1 billion from the Netherlands) and Table 5.4.4 (for countries with imports worth less than €1 billion from the Netherlands). Greece is in 11th place. The Netherlands has a 4.8% share in Greek imports. This strikingly large share is due to high exports of Dutch pork and cheese to Greece. According to Eurostat the Netherlands is by far the largest source of pork imports, with a 45% share. The Netherlands ranks 2nd as a supplier of cheese to Greece.
| 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Market share greater than 5% (2019) | |||||
| Belgium | 16.5 | 15.8 | 17.1 | 18.0 | 17.4 |
| Nigeria | 7.4 | 7.3 | 8.9 | 11.6 | 10.7 |
| Sweden | 8.3 | 8.6 | 8.9 | 9.4 | 9.4 |
| Germany | 8.4 | 8.8 | 8.1 | 8.2 | 7.9 |
| Denmark | 8.0 | 7.9 | 7.7 | 7.7 | 7.9 |
| United Kingdom | 7.5 | 7.4 | 8.0 | 8.3 | 7.7 |
| Lithuania | 5.1 | 4.8 | 5.0 | 4.9 | 5.4 |
| Italy | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.6 | 5.3 | 5.3 |
| Hungary | 4.5 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.1 | 5.1 |
| Portugal | 5.1 | 5.1 | 5.4 | 5.2 | 5.0 |
| Market share between 3% and 5% (2019) | |||||
| Greece | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.2 | 4.9 | 4.8 |
| Finland | 5.3 | 5.0 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.5 |
| France | 4.2 | 4.5 | 4.6 | 4.4 | 4.3 |
| Spain | 4.2 | 4.3 | 4.0 | 4.1 | 4.2 |
| Romania | 4.0 | 4.1 | 4.0 | 3.9 | 3.9 |
| Croatia | . | . | . | 3.7 | 3.9 |
| Norway | 3.6 | 4.0 | 3.9 | 3.7 | 3.8 |
| Poland | 3.8 | 3.5 | 3.1 | 3.3 | 3.8 |
| Bulgaria | 3.3 | 3.6 | 3.7 | 3.8 | 3.6 |
| Ireland | 3.8 | 3.5 | 3.1 | 3.3 | 3.4 |
| Market share between 1% and 3% (2019) | |||||
| Czech Republic | 3.0 | 2.9 | 2.7 | 2.8 | 2.9 |
| Taiwan | 1.3 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.4 | 2.8 |
| Austria | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 2.7 |
| Saudi Arabia | 1.0 | 1.7 | 2.1 | 2.7 | 2.5 |
| Switzerland | 2.1 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 |
| Israel | 3.9 | 4.1 | 4.2 | 1.9 | 1.8 |
| Russia | 1.5 | 1.6 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.6 |
| Turkey | 1.4 | 1.5 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 1.5 |
| Slovakia | 1.4 | 1.5 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.4 |
| United States | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
| Brazil | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.9 | 1.2 |
| United Arab Emirates | 0.5 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.4 | 1.1 |
| Australia | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.1 |
| South Africa | 1.2 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.0 |
| Market share lower than 1% (2019) | |||||
| Singapore | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.9 | 1.7 | 0.9 |
| Egypt | 2.0 | 2.6 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 0.9 |
| South Korea | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.8 |
| Canada | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.8 |
| Thailand | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.8 |
| India | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
| China | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 |
| Mexico | 0.8 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
| Hong Kong | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4 |
| Japan | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4 |
Source:UNCTAD, UN Comtrade, processed by CBS
Note: Countries in bold are on the trade agenda.
Cape Verde imports a relatively large amount of goods from the Netherlands
If the countries importing goods worth more than €1 billion from the Netherlands are excluded, Cape Verde is the country in which the Netherlands has the largest share of goods imports (Table 5.4.4). This table shows the countries importing goods worth less than €1 billion from the Netherlands. These partners are less important for Dutch exports than the partners shown in Table 5.4.3. Table 5.4.4 also shows the Netherlands’ share in the import of each country. In 2019, for example, the Netherlands exported a particularly large amount of oil products to Cape Verde. The Netherlands was consequently the 2nd largest supplier of goods to Cape Verde after Portugal. The Netherlands also ranks 2nd as a supplier of goods to Aruba and Suriname.
| 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Market share greater than 1% (2019) | |||||
| Cape Verde | 11.6 | 6.4 | 4.6 | 6.0 | 12.7 |
| Suriname | 9.3 | 11.5 | 12.2 | 9.7 | 12.5 |
| Barbados | 1.5 | 1.9 | 1.5 | 2.4 | 8.2 |
| Aruba | 10.4 | 8.9 | 11.7 | 10.4 | 8.1 |
| Iceland | 5.9 | 7.5 | 6.6 | 6.3 | 6.9 |
| Senegal | 4.1 | 5.3 | 5.6 | 6.5 | 6.8 |
| Cyprus | 5.1 | 3.3 | 5.0 | 3.3 | 4.3 |
| Gambia | 2.7 | 3.7 | 2.9 | 2.6 | 4.3 |
| Luxembourg | 3.5 | 3.4 | 3.6 | 3.9 | 4.1 |
| Latvia | 3.7 | 4.1 | 4.0 | 3.5 | 3.7 |
| Malta | 7.2 | 3.6 | 3.4 | 4.7 | 3.1 |
| Ivory Coast | 2.9 | 2.0 | 3.2 | 3.6 | 2.8 |
| Estonia | 4.1 | 5.0 | 4.5 | 3.3 | 2.7 |
| Morocco | 1.8 | 2.7 | 2.5 | 2.3 | 2.4 |
| Qatar | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 2.4 |
| Belarus | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 2.3 |
| Kuwait | 1.6 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 2.0 | 2.0 |
| Benin | 3.2 | 4.8 | 7.2 | 3.4 | 1.9 |
| Georgia | 1.8 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 1.9 |
| Northern Macedonia | 1.8 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 1.8 |
| Burkina Faso | 7.6 | 4.5 | 7.1 | 3.2 | 1.8 |
| Ghana | . | 2.4 | 1.9 | 2.2 | 1.7 |
| Kenya | . | . | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.7 |
| Serbia | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.7 | 1.6 | 1.6 |
| Pakistan | 0.8 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 1.6 |
| Slovenia | 2.1 | 2.3 | 2.0 | 1.9 | 1.5 |
| Ecuador | 1.4 | 1.1 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 1.4 |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.4 |
| Ukraine | 1.2 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.3 |
| Jordan | 1.0 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.2 | 1.2 |
| Antigua and Barbuda | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 1.2 |
| Guinea | 1.8 | 1.6 | 1.8 | 1.4 | 1.1 |
| New Zealand | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.0 |
| Market share lower than 1% (2019) | |||||
| Argentinia | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.8 |
| Burundi | 6.3 | 1.1 | 1.5 | 1.4 | 0.8 |
| Armenia | 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 0.8 |
| Peru | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 |
| Kazakhstan | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.6 |
| Chili | 0.7 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.6 |
| Philippines | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 |
| Paraguay | 4.3 | 4.3 | 3.8 | 3.5 | 0.5 |
Source:UNCTAD, UN Comtrade, processed by CBS
Note: Countries in bold are on the trade agenda.
5.5Importance of the Netherlands as a market for other countries
Dutch goods imports were worth €425 billion in 2020. Figure 5.5.1 shows that the Netherlands was responsible for 2.7% of global imports in 2020, which means the Dutch contribution to global imports rose by 0.2 percentage points between 2015 and 2020. Compared to 2019 the share remained almost unchanged in 2020. The Netherlands was the 6th largest import country worldwide in 2020.
The Dutch share in EU imports (including the United Kingdom) grew by 0.1 percentage points to 4.5% in 2020. At the same time the Dutch share in non-EU imports was 0.3 percentage points higher than in 2019. Between 2015 and 2020 the Dutch contribution to EU imports rose by 0.3 percentage points. Among non-EU countries the Dutch import share rose by 0.5 percentage points to 2.2% between 2015 and 2020.
| Jaar | World | EU | Non-EU |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 2.5 | 4.2 | 1.7 |
| 2018 | 2.6 | 4.3 | 1.8 |
| 2019 | 2.7 | 4.4 | 1.9 |
| 2020 | 2.7 | 4.5 | 2.2 |
The Netherlands recorded imports worth €279 billion from the world’s 10 largest economies in 2019 according to UNCTAD. That represents 50% of total Dutch imports. The Netherlands had a trade deficit of €49 billion with these 10 largest economies in 2019. The Netherlands has substantial deficits particularly with China (€30 billion), the United States (€10 billion) and Japan (€3 billion). A large proportion of the goods that the Netherlands imports from these countries ultimately leave the country as re-exports or transit trade. In its role as a ‘Gateway to Europe’ the Netherlands thus has an important function as a supplier of goods to countries both inside and outside Europe. Partly for this reason the Netherlands has a substantial trade surplus with Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy (combined total of €77 billion).
Netherlands is the 3rd largest customer for Brazilian exports
The Dutch share in exports of Germany (over 6%) and the United Kingdom (around 6.5%) was higher than the EU average of 4.4% in 2019. As an export destination within the EU the Netherlands is particularly important for Germany. The Netherlands ranks 4th for exports of its eastern neighbours after the United States, France and China. The Netherlands was also the 4th export destination for the United Kingdom in 2019. The United States, Germany and China are the main customers for goods exports from the United Kingdom. The Dutch share in imports from France and Italy remained below the EU average. The Netherlands is slightly less important for these countries, ranking 9th and 10th respectively.
Among non-EU countries, the Dutch share in exports is highest in the case of Brazil, as can be seen from Figure 5.5.2. The Netherlands received 5% of Brazilian exports in 2019. That is well above the Netherlands’ average share in exports of non-EU countries (1.9%). Outside the EU the Netherlands therefore plays a prominent role in Brazilian goods exports as the 3rd largest export destination. Brazil has large exports of soy beans, of which 78% go to China according to UN Comtrade. Spain and the Netherlands are the main customers for Brazilian soy beans after China. The Spanish and Dutch export shares are 3% and 2% respectively. The Netherlands is among the top 10 export destinations for Canada, China, India and the United States, but occupies a modest position as a customer for Japan.
| Land | 2019 | 2018 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|
| United States | 3.1 | 2.9 | 2.7 |
| China | 3.0 | 2.9 | 2.6 |
| Japan | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.9 |
| Germany | 6.2 | 6.4 | 6.1 |
| India | 1.5 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
| United Kingdom | 6.5 | 7.1 | 5.7 |
| France | 3.4 | 3.7 | 3.9 |
| Italy | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.3 |
| Brazil | 4.5 | 5.5 | 5.2 |
| Canada | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.7 |
Netherlands is important export destination for Iceland and Ivory Coast
Of the countries with an export flow of more than €1 billion to the Netherlands, Iceland and Ivory Coast depend most on the Dutch market (Figure 5.5.3). Iceland earns more than one in four export euros from Dutch customers. Thanks to its geothermal energy sources Iceland exports in particular large amounts worth of aluminium. Over a quarter of these exports go to the Netherlands.
With Amsterdam being the largest port in the world for imports of cocoa beans, the Netherlands is a particularly important market for countries such as Ivory Coast and Ghana. The Netherlands is the main customer for cocoa beans from Ivory Coast, with an 11% export share (see also CBS, 2019; Creemers & Draper, 2021).
| Land | Share |
|---|---|
| Iceland | 26.4 |
| Belgium | 12.1 |
| Norway | 11.2 |
| Ivory Coast | 10.8 |
| Russia | 10.7 |
| Kazakhstan | 7.7 |
| United Kingdom | 6.5 |
| Germany | 6.2 |
| Finland | 5.9 |
| Nigeria | 5.7 |
Netherlands is particularly important for exports from Costa Rica
Below the €1 billion threshold for exports to the Netherlands, the main country is Kenya, followed by Cambodia, Ghana and Costa Rica. 8% of Kenyan exports were destined for the Netherlands in 2019. That means the Netherlands is the 3rd export destination after Uganda and the United States. The Netherlands imports a large quantity of cut flowers, such as roses, from Kenya. In the case of Cambodia, the Netherlands was the 10th largest export destination in 2019. Cambodia supplies particularly clothing, footwear and bags to the Netherlands (see also CBS, 2021d). After Ivory Coast and Cameroon, Ghana is the 3rd largest supplier of cocoa beans to the Netherlands, with a 14% share. It is notable that the Netherlands ranks 2nd as an export partner of Costa Rica. Almost a quarter of imported bananas come from Costa Rica. Costa Rica is also an important supplier of pineapple, with an 84% share of imports.
5.6References
References
CBS (2015). De in- en uitvoercijfers van het CBS. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2019). The Netherlands largest importer of cocoa beans. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2020a). Rise in domestic exports to China. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2020b). Exports to Poland generate over 5 billion euros. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2020c). Growth in exports to the United Kingdom lagging behind. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2020d). Domestic exports to the United Kingdom down by 17 percent. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2021a). 11 percent fewer goods imported from Africa. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2021b). Exports to the UK generated almost €26 billion in 2020. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2021c). More domestic exports to the UK in Q1 2021. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
CBS (2021d). Half of all imported goods from low-income countries are clothes. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
Creemers, S., Jaarsma, M., Notten, T. & Rooyakkers, J. (2020). De handels- en investeringsrelatie tussen Nederland en China. In: S. Creemers, M. Jaarsma & R. Voncken (Red.), Internationalisation Monitor 2020, second quarter: China. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
Creemers, S. & Draper, H. (2021). Trends in de Nederlands-Afrikaanse handel. In: S. Creemers & M. Jaarsma (Red.), Internationalisation Monitor 2021, first quarter: Africa. Statistics Netherlands: The Hague/Heerlen/Bonaire.
Creemers, S., Rooyakkers, J., Dahlmans, D., Ramaekers, P. & Alberda, A. P. (2021). Agrologistiek en -transport. In: G. D. Jukema, P. Ramaekers & P. Berkhout (Red.), The Dutch agricultural sector from an international perspective, 2021. Wageningen/Heerlen/The Hague: Wageningen Economic Research and Statistics Netherlands.
Duin, van der, K. (2021, 7 February). Door pandemie is ‘Made in China’ duurder dan ooit. NOS Nieuwsuur.
Evofenedex (2021). Zuid-Korea: hightechpartner in innovatie.
Kuypers, F., Lejour, A., Lemmers, O. & Ramaekers, P. (2012). Kenmerken van wederuitvoerbedrijven. The Hague/Heerlen: Statistics Netherlands and Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis.
Lemmers, O. & Wong, K. F. (2019). Distinguishing between imports for domestic use and for re-exports: A novel method for the Netherlands. National Institute Economic Review, 249(1), R46–R51.
Kaag, S. A. M. (2018). Handelsagenda [Letter to Parliament].
NFIA (2019). Invest in Holland. Leading location for innovation and growth.
RVO (2021a). Handel Nederland – Zuid-Korea.
RVO (2021b). Zakelijke kansen in Zuid-Korea.
Noten
See Chapter 2 of the Q2 2020 Internationalisation Monitor for a detailed analysis of bilateral trade between the Netherlands and China (Creemers et al., 2020).
Exports of domestic goods generated the highest earnings for the Netherlands in 2019, at almost €125 billion. Exports of services and re-exports earned less, €112 billion and €35 billion respectively.
This information has become available as a result of new analysis techniques at CBS (Lemmers & Wong, 2019). The data shown in Figure 5.3.5 are taken from the National Accounts and are available up to 2019 inclusive. The other figures in this paragraph are based on the International Trade in Goods source statistics. The source statistics use different concepts than the National Accounts; for example, the source statistics are based on cross-border trade in goods, while the National Accounts are based on economic ownership. Integration into the National Accounts results in additional differences. As a result, the totals in Figure 5.3.5 and the other figures in this section may differ. For more information on these differences, see ‘CBS import and export statistics’ (CBS, 2015).